HESI A2 Anatomy and Physiology

What is histology?

The study of tissues

What is a tissue?

A group of cells that act together to perform a specific function.

What are the fundamental tissues?

Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nerve
(Elephants Can Make News)

What is the function of epithelial cells?

Cover, line, and protect the body and the internal organs.

What is the function of connective tissue?

Framework of the body. Provides support and structure to organs.

What is neuroglia?

The neurons and connective tissue cells that compose nerve tissue.

What ability does muscle tissue have?

Ability to contract and shorten.

What is muscle tissue classified as?

Voluntary(skeletal muscles) and involuntary(smooth & cardiac)

What is meiosis?

The cell division that takes place in the gonads, i.e. the ovaries and testes.

What two layers compose the skin?

Epidermis and dermis.

What is the epidermis?

The outermost protective layer of dead keratinized epithelial cells.

What is the dermis?

The underlying layer of connective tissue with blood vessels, nerve endings, and the associated skin tissues.

What are the layers of the epidermis?

Corneum
Lucidum
Granulosum
Germivatum ( basale & spinosum)
Mnemonic: Candy Lions Growl Great.

What does the protein pigment melanin protect against?

Radiation from the Sun

What is the dermis composed of?

Fibrous connective tissue with nerve endings, blood vessels, sensory nerve endings, hair follicles, and glands.

What are the 2 types of sweat glands?

ecrine & apocrine

What do ecrine sweat glands produce?

Sweat. Regulate body temperature.

What do apocrine sweat glands produce?

Secretions contain bits of cytoplasm from cells, attracting bacteria that produces body odor.

What do sebaceous glands secrete?

They secrete sebum through the hair follicles, which lubricates the skin and prevents drying.

What secretion produces oil?

Holocrine secretion.

What are sebaceous glands prone to during adolescence?

Becoming clogged and attracting bacteria.

What protein composes the hair and skin?

Keratin

What makes the body's framework?

Bone, cartilage, ligaments & joints.

What are the functions of the skeletal system?

Support, movement, blood cell formation, protection of internal organs, detoxification, muscle attachment, mineral storage. *A MIME BATHED SEALS SINGING "MY PONY"*

How are bones classified?

By shape.
Long
Short
flat
irregular
sesamoid
*LEMURS SING SALSA FOR INDIANS*

What is the name for the cells that compose compact bone?

Osteoblasts

What occurs to osteoblasts when they become fixed in the dense bone matrix?

They stop dividing but continue to maintain body tissues as osteocytes.

How many bones make up the axial skeleton?

28 bones of the skull. 14-facial, 14-cranium.

How many bones make the facial skeleton?

2 nasal bones
2 maxillary bones
2 zygomatic bones
1 mandible
2 palatine bones
1 vomer
2 lacrimal bones
2 inferior nasal bones

What are the bones of the cranium?

single occipital
frontal
ethmoid
sphenoid
paired parietal
temporal
ossicles

What bone structures are in the ossicles (ears) ?

malleus, incus, stapes

How many bones make the skeletal column?

33 bones

How many cervical vertebrae in the skeletal column?

7

How many thoracic vertebrae in the skeletal column?

12

How many lumbar vertebrae?

5

How many sacral vertebrae?

5

How many coccygeal vertebrae?

1-the tailbone

What makes up the final part of the axial skeleton?

the thorax
the sternum
12 pairs of ribs.

What makes up the appendicular skeleton?

the bones of the girdle and limbs

What bones make the upper appendicular skeleton?

pectoral & shoulder girdle
clavicle
scapula
upper extremities

What are the bones of the arm?

Humerus
Radius
Ulna
Carpals (wrist bones)
Metacarpals (hand bones)
phalanges (finger bones)

What bones make the lower part of the appendicular skeleton?

The pelvic girdle or os coxae

What bones make the os coxae?

fused ilium
ischium
pubis

What bones make up the lower extremities?

femur
tibia
fibula
tarsals (ankle bones)
metatarsals (foot bones)
phalanges (toe bones)

How do muscles make movement?

Contraction in response to nervous stimulation.

What occurs in muscle fibers during contraction?

Myosin & actin filaments slide together.

What structures make up muscle cells?

Myofibrils made up of sarcomeres.

What must be present for a muscle cell to contract?

Calcium and ATP

What does nervous stimulation from motor neurons cause in the muscles?

Release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

What is the function of calcium in muscle contraction?

Attach to inhibitory proteins on the actin filaments of the muscle cell, moving them aside.
This forms cross bridges between actin and myosin filaments.

Why are the skeletal muscles of the muscular system considered voluntary?

Because they are under conscious control.

How do skeletal muscles work?

In pairs: the prime mover and the antagonist.

What is the function of the prime mover?

The muscle that executes a given movement.

What is the function of the antagonist?

The muscles that executes the opposite movement of the prime mover.

What are synergists?

Muscles that work together with the prime mover.

How are muscles classified?

According to the movements they elicit

What are the two classifications of muscles?

Flexors and extensors.

What is the function of flexors?

Reduce the angle at the joint.

What is the function of extensors?

Increase the angle at the joint.

What is the function of an abductor muscle?

Draw a limb away from the midline of the body.

What is the function of adductors?

Return the limb back toward the body.

What makes up the nervous system?

The brain, spinal cord & nerves.

What are the functional units of the nervous system?

The neuron.

What are the main parts of the neuron?

Cell body
Axon
Dendrites

What is the function of the dendrites?

Transmit impulses toward the cell body

What is the function of the axon?

Transmit impulses away from the body

What two systems make up the nervous system?

CNS-Central nervous system
PNS-Peripheral nervous system

What makes up the PNS?

All the nerves that transmit information to and from the CNS.

What is the function of sensory (afferent) neurons?

Transmit information to and from the CNS.

What is the function of Motor (efferent) neurons?

Transmit nerve impulses away from the CNS toward the effector organs such as muscles, glands, and digestive organs.

What are the 3 major parts of the brain?

Cerebrum
Cerebellum
Medulla Oblongata

What is the function of the cerebrum?

Movement & sensory input.

What is the function of the cerebellum?

Muscular coordination.

What is the function of the medulla oblongata?

Controls vital functions such as respiration and heart rate.

How long is the spinal cord?

18 inches long and extends from the base of the skull to the first or second lumbar vertebrae.

How many pairs of nerves exit the spinal cord?

31 pairs of nerves exit the spinal cord.

What are simple (spinal) reflexes?

Those in which nerve impulses travel through the spinal cord only and do not reach the brain.

What is the function of the endocrine system?

Assist the nervous system in homeostasis and plays important roles in sexual maturation.

Where do the endocrine and nervous system meet?

The hypothalamus and pituitary gland

What does the hypothalamus govern?

The pituitary gland and is controlled by the feedback of hormones in the blood.

Which has more long-lasting effects on the body, the endocrine or the nervous system?

The endocrine system

What are hormones?

Chemical messengers controlling growth, differentiation & metabolism of cells.

What are the two major groups of hormones?

Steroid and nonsteroid

What is the effect of steroid hormones?

Enter the cell and have a direct effect on the DNA of the nucleus.

What is the function of some nonsteroid hormones?

Serve as protein hormones.

What is the function of protein hormones?

Stay at the cell surface and act through second messenger.

What is the usual second messenger used by protein hormones?

Adenosine monophosphate (AMP)

How do hormones affect cell activity?

Alters the rate of protein synthesis.

Which gland is considered the "master gland"?

The pituitary gland

Where is the pituitary gland located?

Attached to the hypothalamus by a stalk called the infundibulum.

What are the two major portions of the pituitary gland?

Anterior lobe-adenohypophysis
Posterior lobe-neurohypophysis

Why are the hormones of the adenohypophysis called *tropic hormones*?

Because they act mainly on other endocrine glands.

What are the tropic hormones?

STH
GH
ACTH
TSH
FSH
LH

What is the STH or GH hormone?

Growth Hormone

What is the ACTH hormone?

Adrenocorticotropic hormone

What is the TSH hormone?

Thyroid-stimulating hormone

What is the FSH hormone?

Follicle-stimulating hormone

What is the LH hormone?

Luteinizing hormone

What hormones are released from the posterior lobe of the pituitary?

Oxytocin (labor hormone)
ADH-Antidiuretic hormone.

What are some important endocrine glands?

Thyroid
Parathyroid
Adrenals
Pancreas
Gonads (ovaries & testes)