M7 Perpetrators & Victims of Maltreatment in Sport

Victims of Maltreatment in Sport

Anyone can be a victim (athletes, staff, coaches, etc)

Power Imbalances

Are crucial to consider when thinking of maltreatment

• Think of wheel of power or bases of power (French & Raven, 1959)

Referees as Victims

Often overlooked, but experience significant maltreatment in sport

Referees as Victims Video

Highlights verbal abuse, harassment, even physical aggression towards referees (even minor referees)

• Leads to high turnover rates

  • Examples from Tri-Campus @ UofT. Show verbal abuse to be “normal” for referees

Culture of Sport

Maltreatment is deeply ingrained in the culture of sports

• Parents and coach reactions set examples

  • Young volunteers (e.g. 14-15 yr old refs) are particularly vulnerable

Ways Culture of Sport Perpetuate Maltreatment

Hockey Parent Culture

Emotional Regulation

Passion for the Sport

Sports Betting
Technology

Hockey Parent Culture

Drinking culture at tournaments can escalate aggression and violence

Passion for the Sport

Often used to justify verbal abuse

Sports Betting

Correlated with worsening behaviour towards referees due to financial stakes

Technology

While improving accuracy, things like the controversial “pinky toe offside” still incite anger, highlighting the human element and cultural resistance to purely objective calls

Murd and Colleagues 2024

Study on referees’ experiences found a long list of maltreatment types (over 900 participants):

• Physical: invasion of personal space, punching, grabbing, physical blows

• Non-physical: threatening gestures/body language, remarks/comments, hostile swearing

Maltreatment peaks during official decisions (warnings, cards)

Effects on Referees

Non-physical abuse: Directly associated with reduced well-being and increased intentions to quit

Physical abuse: Also correlated with intentions to quit

How to Reduce Violence Towards Referees

1. Stricter Rules

2. Documentation and Accountability

3. Pre-game Education

4. Advocacy and Support Systems

5. Accountability on Teams/Organizations

6. Addressing Logistics

7. Online Bullying

Stricter Rules

Zero-tolerance policies for coaches/parents

Documentation and Accountability

Better incident reporting, follow-through, and higher-level authority to enforce consequences

Pre-game Education

Briefing on conduct expectations for spectators, coaches, and athletes

• e.g. at movie theaters they tell you to “turn your screen off”

Advocacy and Support Systems

“Referee bodyguards” or liason roles

Accountability on Teams/Organizations

Coaches modelling respect, intervening

Addressing Logistics

Challenges with banning parents

• e.g. if we kick the parent out, how can the kid get home? who cares for the kid during the games?

Online Bullying

Acknowledging the invisible and untrackable nature of cyberbullying

New Study by University of Ottawa (2026)

Over 1000 Canadian soccer referees surveyed

• Findings

  • 35% experience physical abuse

  • 94% report verbal abuse

  • Associated w/ anxiety and depression symptoms

  • Gender differences observed (requires further investigation)

Profiling Perpetrators

Study conducted by Zagdoll & Polly (2023)

• Survey of Canadian athletes which asked about psychological (psychological, emotional, neglect abuse rolled into one), sexual, and physical abuse and by who

• Psychological Abuse: Coaches were most common (712 reported coaches vs. 661 teammates)

• Sexual & Physical Abuse: Teammates/peers more commonly reported

• Parents: Also a significant perpetrator of psychological harm

Parents as Perpetrators

Engage in public humiliation, pressure to perform, creating fear/stress, poor sportsmanship (taunting), body shaming

• Dance Moms analogy: Glorified entertainment at the time, now viewed critically as child maltreatment

• Club Admin Challenges: Parents pushing backa gainst positive culture initiatives, prioritizing winning over well-being

• Early Specialization: Parents pushing young children (e.g. 7-year-olds practicing daily in garages) despite little correlation between early success and adult elite performance, and risks of burnout

• Parental Justification: Parents often justify coaches’ harsh behaviours (“he pushes you because he cares”) or reinforce negative experiences by providing a “safe zone” at home w/o addressing the abuse

The Car Ride Home

From Dr. Taminant’s work

• Critical time for children; parents should act as a “safe space,” support person, and cheerleader, not coach

• Focus on “Did you have fun? Learn something? Were you challenged?” rather than performance

• Recommendations translated into real-world resources

Parents and Lack of Awareness or Education

Parental behaviours often stem from not knowing better, historical norms, and a generational gap in understanding maltreatment

• Socialization from other parents in clubs can also influence new parents

Prevention Strategies for Maltreatment

Beyond Coach Intervention: Prevention needs to include peers, administrators, other adults

Education and Awareness: Important, but not sufficient alone

Background Checks (Police Checks):

• Purpose: Prevent individuals w/ criminal records (especially related to sexual harm/children) from working in vulnerable sectors

• Limitations: Many forms of maltreatment do not meet legal thresholds and thus won’t appear on a police record

Reporting Mechanism:

• Crucial to have accessible and effective channels for athletes to report, ensuring follow-up and intervention

Bullying

Repeated and sustained exposure to negative action by one or more peers, often involving an imbalance of power

• Not necessarily a single extreme incident but a pattern (exclusion, taunting, isolation, physical acts)

• Can be difficult to intervene as isolated incidents seem minor

• Intentional, negative, or aggressive acts, occurring often/repeatedly

Peer-to-Peer Power Imbalance

Social status, playing status (good player, expertise, time playing (vet vs. rookie), gender, other inequities

Sport Enhances Bullying

Competitiveness: Can lead to separation or internal team tension

Aggressive Nature of Some Sports: (e.g. football, rugby, hockey) can normalize aggression

Normalization: Intense cultures, lack of intervention

Coach Influence: Coaches can inadvertently promote bullying by pitting athletes against each other

Gohari and Colleagues 2019

Interview 7 athletes on bullying in youth sport

• Categories: Aggression (scolding, rumours), misogynistic language, cliques (excluding newcomers), degrading others (jealously, arrogance), lack of control (“object to coach, get out”)

Study with 1500 male athletes

Study in Portugal

• 50% reported experiencing verbal bullying

• 23% experienced social bullying

• 20% reported multiple types of bullying

• Nearly 50% witnessed others experience bullying

• 60% of athletes admitted engaging in bullying behavioour

Many instances of “occasional bullying,” highlighting undetected or tolerated behaviours

Bullying Prevention (group discussion)

1. Anonymous Reporting

2. Education and Training

3. Coach Intervention

4. Athlete-Centered Culture

5. Policy Enforcement

Anonymous Reporting

Safe ways for athletes and witnesses to report without fear of retaliation

Education and Training

• Mandatory workshops for athletes, coaches, parents

• Education on what bullying is, how to intervene, online bullying threats

• Recognizing early signs of bullying

Coach Intervention

• Coaches as role models for respect and calm behaviour

• Creating a positive team culture, setting clear rules and consequences

• Promoting constructive feedback instead of degradation

• Building trust so athletes feel comfortable approaching coaches

Athlete-Centered Culture

• Co-creating team agreements/codes of conduct (e.g. weekly/monthly updates)

• Shared decision-making, individualized performance goals

• Empowering athletes to build a positive team environment and manage their emotions

• Prioritizing a cooperative environment over solely competitive ones, fostering healthy communication

Policy Enforcement

Stricter anti-bullying policies, codes of conduct for all stakeholders (athletes, coaches, parents)

Hazing

The imitation into a new group involving humiliating or dangerous rituals

• Why is it done: Out of tradition, to be included in the team, team hierarchy, building bonds, establishing dominance, demonstrating dedication, “fun” for older members, to gain acceptance into the team

• Formal Definition: Perpetrated by sport group members against individuals seeking inclusion, admittance, or acceptance into the group

Hazing Key Aspects

• Often occurs regardless of willingness to participate

• Stigma of saying no (perceived lack of commitment, impact on team integration)

• Gateway to acceptance, demonstrating team identity, social currency

• Sense of accomplishment/pride for those who “earn their stripes”

Hazing Examples

Hockey Canada (2022): report highlighted hazing as part of a “broken culture,” often involving sexualized activity

• Dichotomy: Often sports w/ high homophobia also have highly sexualized hazing rituals

St. Mike’s College (civilian case): Deep-rooted normalization over many years

NBA (early/mid 2000s): Prominent teams engaged in “fun” rookie hazing (pre-social media)

Hazing Consequences

Last two decades show significant negative outcomes including death, dismemberment, illegal activities

• Some teams disbanded/suspended entirely due to hazing scandals

Hazing Prevention

Zero-Tolerance Policies: While increasing consequences, they have often driven hazing underground, making it harder to track

• Some coaches adopt “don’t ask, don’t tell” policies

• CAC Report (2023): 1/3 coaches aware of hazing in their organization. Of those, 82% condoned the behaviour

Hazing Prevention Challenges

Normalization: “I had to go through it, now it’s your turn”

Jekyll and Colleagues 2018

Looked at the negative effects of hazing

Physical: Weight changes, sexual dysfunction, substance abuse, doping risk, unproductive sexual activity, trauma to sex organs

Emotional: decreased confidence/self-esteem, overly compliant behaviours, increased aggression, interpersonal conflicts, emotional instability, attachment problems, self-harm thoughts/behaviours, disordered eating

Organizational: Damage to reputation, loss of community support, loss of athlete involvement (traumatized athletes quit), loss of talented athletes, academic underperformance

Alternative Team Building

From Diamond and Colleagues

• Questioning hazing effectiveness for team camaraderie/commitment

• Creating opportunities that promote respect, support, empowerment, and real teamwork

• Focus on how teammates show up for each other daily, not just “trust falls”

• Foster lifelong memories through social activities (alcoholic and non-alcoholic) with boundaries and respect