c9

learning

a relatively permanent change in an employee’s knowledge or skill that results from experience

decision making

the process of generating and choosing from a set of alternatives to solve a problem

explicit knowledge

knowledge that is easily communicated and available to everyone

tacit knowledge

knowledge that employees learn via experience

reinforcement

we learn by observing the link between our voluntary behavior and the consequences that follow it

operant conditioning

we learn by observing the link between our voluntary behavior and the consequences that follow it

antecedent

condition that precedes behavior

behavior

action performed by employee

consequence

result that occurs after behavior

contingencies of reinforcement

4 consequences used to modify employee behaviour

positive reinforcement

positive outcome follows a desired behaviour

negative reinforcement

unwanted outcome is removed following a desired behaviour

punishment

unwanted outcome follows an unwanted behaviour

extinction

removal of a positive outcome following unwanted behaviour

schedules of reinforcement

the timing of when contingencies are applied or removed

continuous

a schedule of reinforcement in which a specific consequence follows each and every occurrence of a certain behaviour

fixed interval

a schedule whereby reinforcement occurs at fixed time periods

variable interval

a schedule whereby reinforcement occurs at random periods of time

fixed ratio

a schedule whereby reinforcement occurs following a fixed number of desired behaviours

variable ratio

a schedule whereby behaviours are reinforced after a varying number of them have been exhibited

social learning theory

a theory that argues that people in organizations learn by observing others

behaviour modelling

employees observe the actions of others, learn from what they observe, and then repeat the observed behaviour

attentional processes

learner focuses attention on the critical behaviors exhibited by the model

retention processes

learner must remember the behaviors of the model once the model is no longer present

production processes

learner must have the appropriate skill set and be able to reproduce the behavior

reinforcement

learner must view the model receiving reinforcement for the behavior and then receive it themself

goal orientation

the activities and goals that people prioritize

learning orientation

focus on building competence

performance orientation

focus on demonstrating competence

performance prove

focus on demonstrating competence so others think favourably of them

performance avoid

focus on demonstrating competence so others won’t think poorly of them

programmed decisions

somewhat automatic decisions because the decision maker’s knowledge allows them to recognize the situation and the course of action to be taken

non-programmed decisions

decisions made when a problem is new, complex, or not recognized

rational decision making model

step-by-step approach to making decisions that is designed to maximize outcomes by examining all available alternatives

bounded rationality

the notion that people do not have the ability or resources to process all available information and alternatives when making a decision

satisficing

choosing the first acceptable alternative considered when making a decision

selective perception

the tendency for people to see their environment only as it affects them and as it is consistent with their expectations

projection bias

faulty perception by decision makers that others think, feel, and act as they do

groups to which they belong and judge others according to the groups they associate with

stereotypes

assumptions made about others based on their social group membership

heuristics

simple and efficient rules of thumb that allow one to make decisions more easily

availability bias

tendency for people to base judgments on information that is easier to recall

anchoring effect

the tendency to rely too heavily or anchor on one piece of information

contrast effect

tendency to judge things erroneously based on a reference that is near to them

recency effect

the tendency to weigh recent events more than earlier events

attribution

process by which causes or motives are assigned to explain people’s behaviour

internal attributions

blame individual factors—e.g., ability, motivation

external attributions

blame environmental factors—e.g., bad traffic

fundamental attribution error

tendency for people to judge others’ behaviour as due to internal factors

self-serving bias

attributing one’s own failure to external factors and success to internal factors

consensus

did others act the same way under similar situations?

distinctiveness

does the person tend to act differently in other circumstances?

escalation of commitment

the decision to continue to follow a failing course of action

training

a systematic effort by organizations to facilitate the learning of job-related knowledge and behaviour

knowledge transfer

the exchange of knowledge between employees

behavior modeling training

when employees observe the actions of others, learn from what they observe, and then repeat the observed behaviour

communities of practice

groups of employees who share similar concerns and problems and meet regularly to share their experiences and knowledge, learn from each other, and identify new approaches for working and solving problems

transfer of training

occurs when employees retain and demonstrate the knowledge, skills, and behaviours required for their job after training ends

climate for transfer

an organizational environment that supports the use of new skills