Feminist Biblical Interpretation

Midterm Exam

Eve

Traditional Eve: Created second to Adam, women are subordinate to men, manipulative because she tempted Adam, God’s command for “husband shall rule over you”

Feminist Eve: Reframed as autonomous, literary context of Hebrew translation of “adam” = mankind, not solely man. When “adam” created in God’s image, both woman AND man created equally

Plato

• wrote Timaeus, talked about creation 

• Plato proposes that those who lived bad would be reincarnated as a woman → misogynistic view that being born woman was ‘punishment’

• Eve’s persuasiveness over Adam made her weaker and prone to sin → portraying all women as weak

Aristotle

• Philosophy is explicitly misogynistic b/c claimed women were biologically and intellectually inferior to men

• A woman’s courage does not equate to man’s courage 

• women were “secretive and crafty” → used Eve as example to depict women as manipulators 

Hesiod

• wrote Work and Days, the gods created the woman Pandora as punishment to men

• Pandora’s curiosity opened a jar, which unleashed all the evils of the world → parallels to Eve’s curiosity and used to explain origin of suffering and sin of world 

• women are inherently dangerous and in need of male control 

Tertullian

• misogynistic views and harsh interpretation of Eve

• wrote On the Apparel of Women, used Eve as example to blame all women for the entrance of sin into the world 

• induced guilt in women in terms of clothing, makeup, jewelry, hair, etc., suggested that how they appeared should affect their behavior 

  • ironic b/c used Eve’s modest clothing as a symbol of mourning, claiming that all women should dress like Eve in sorrow and shame for the sin she introduced 

Sarah

• first matriarch of Bible, wife of Abraham

• Victim: suffering of infertility, Abraham risked her life by lying that she was his sister

  • Infertility: symbol of shame and became marginalized b/c people thought it was God’s punishment to bad women

  • Fertility: tied to status and identity

• Victimizer: harsh treatment of Hagar, her Egyptian slave

  • Gave Hagar to Abraham to be surrogate mother (allowed by Code of Hammurabi)

• Gen 16

Ancient Law Codes

Code of Hammurabi allowed barren wives to give her maid to her husband to bear a child, even allowing wife to deal harshly with the servant

• helps explain Sarah’s harsh treatment to Hagar 

Hagar

• Egyptian slave to Sarah and Abraham

• loses agency b/c having to bear a child for Sarah and Abraham

• her fertility allowed her to gain economic and social status

• submissive vs. proud debate (due to newfound status of mother)

• Gen 16

Rebekah

• second matriarch, wife of Isaac

• initially barren, but becomes mother of Esau and Jacob → favors Jacob and helps deceive Isaac to give birthright to Jacob

• deceptive vs. active woman that carried God’s prophecy (“older will serve the younger son”)

• Genesis 24-27

Leah

• third matriarch, Rachel’s older sister 

• fertile, loved Jacob, but he didn’t love her back 

• bears several sons hoping that she will win Jacob’s affection → highlights traditional interpretation of fertility connecting to status and worth as woman 

• Gen 29-35

Rachel

• fourth matriarch, Leah’s younger sister

• barren, envious of her sister (ironic b/c Leah is jealous of her and wants to be loved by Jacob)

• desired by Jacob and he needs to work 7 more years for her father in order to marry Rachel

• Gen 29-35

Tamar

• daughter-in-law of Judah, initially married to his son Er (Er dies)

• Judah promises Tamar his youngest son b/c of levirate marriage law, but doesn’t follow through

• Tamar takes initiative, pretends to be prostitute, sleeps with Judah and becomes pregnant

  • Her actions secure her place in the family line → shows that women needed to use strategies (even deception) to survive and earn place in society 

• Gen 38:15

Lot’s daughters

• In Gen. 19, Lot offers his two virgin daughters to men of Sodom (enemies of Israel)

• City of Sodom: used Lot to show corruption and evil of Sodom, highlighting Sodom’s injustice of rape 

• After fleeing from destruction of Sodom, Lot’s daughters get Lot drunk and sleep with him to become pregnant 

• Some scholars believe that the daughters did what they had to do to continue the family line, while others believe the daughters committed deceptive sins, negatively portraying all women as deceptive 

Virginity Laws

• virginity was a marker of purity and honor, linked to marriageability

• if a man seduces a virgin and lies with her, he must pay the bride-price and make her his wife, unless the father declines

• if a man believes his wife is not a virgin, the bride’s parents must provide proof of virginity (deuteronomic law)

  • if true, then the woman gets stoned to death for bringing shame

  • if wrong, then the man is simply fined

Marriage Laws

• marriage was seen as a transaction/contract between families 

• groom paid bride-price to father, as he is taking something valuable 

• men could have multiple wives

• Exodus marriage laws: involves protection from mistreatment for female slaves, even encouraging men to marry their slaves

• Deuteronomic marriage laws: if man seduces a woman, he must marry her to ensure that the woman would still be economically and socially safe

• Levirate marriage in Deuteronomy: if a man died, his brother was expected to marry the widow to produce offspring in the deceased brother’s name

Childbirth Laws

• If a woman gave birth to a male child, then she was considered ritually impure for seven days 

• If a woman gave birth to a female child, then she was considered ritually impure for 14 days

• at the end of this period, the mother must bring sacrifices to the priest for purification 

• some interpreters believed that the longer period of impurity after birthing a girl reflected cultural bias that valued males over females 

• Leviticus 12

Menstruation Laws

• treated as a time of ritual impurity, considering women unclean for seven days during her period

• anyone who touches her or touches what she touched is also unclean

• she must also offer a sacrifice after bleeding to become pure again

• if a man slept with a woman during menstruation, both of them would be “cut off from their people”, as it violated holiness codes

• Leviticus 15, 18, 20

Adultery & Rape Laws

• adultery was seen as a serious offense that violates not just the sanctity of the marriage but the whole community. both the adulterer and adulteress must be put to death 

• in the case of non consensual sex (rape), the perpetrator must offer the bride-price and marry the woman to protect the woman from social and economic fallout

  • unfortunately, this law merely recognizes that the woman’s social status has been violated, not necessarily her body

• The woman was responsible for yelling out for help in order to be considered innocent, then the man would be put to death

• In the case of rape in the wilderness, then the man is automatically put to death and the woman considered innocent

• These Deuteronomic laws reflected gender inequalities and differs from modern views of consent

• Deuteronomy 22

Zelophehad’s daughters (Could women inherit property?)

• inheritance laws primarily designed to pass property to male descendants

• the daughters of Zelophehad proved differently, as they petitioned to Moses for father’s property after he died

• they were finally allowed to inherit the land if they married within their own tribe → served as a powerful example that women could fight for what they wanted and are fully capable of taking initiative

Deborah

• only female judge in Israel, prophetess, military commander

• helped defeat the Canaanite army, instructed Barak (leader)

• sung her victory song afterwards

• Deborah’s narrative proved that women could be leaders outside of the home and God does not discriminate based on sex

Jael

• foreign woman who kills the Canaanite leader Sisera

  • offered shelter to him, drove a tent peg through his head while resting → secured victory for Israel

• her act of courage influenced women to take action

• Judges 5

Delilah

• assumed Philistine prostitute who is best known for relationship with Samson, an Israelite hero with great strength 

• She finds out the secret to Samson’s strength is hair, cuts it off → leading to Samson’s downfall

• Traditional Israelite interpreters saw Delilah as a manipulator, while others saw her as a brave woman who defeated a strong man 

• Judges 16

Rahab

• Canaanite prostitute who hides two Israelite spies sent by Joshua to scout the city of Jericho (enemy)

• Confesses her belief in God, even as a foreign woman

• Later mentioned in the genealogy of Jesus, making her an important influence in the Bible

• Her narrative demonstrates that even a woman with a marginalized role as an outsider and prostitute could be influential for her faith

• Joshua 2

Queen of Sheba

• wealthy and wise woman who was well respected

• She tests King Solomon with riddles, interacting with him as an equal

• Some interpreters believe that she was only added to the Bible to impress readers of King Solomon’s wisdom, but other interpreters were more fascinated with her role as independent

• Debates whether she had sexual relations with Solomon or not → displays traditional interpretation that women were only significant through seduction

• Feminist interpreters argue that her story highlights her intelligence

• 1 Kings 10-11

Jezebel

• foreign Phoenician princess who became Israel’s queen through political alliance with King Ahab

• first introduced in 1 Kings as a killer of the Lord’s prophets 

• The narrator frames her as evil because she is a foreign woman seen worshipping the deity Baal → she threatens prophet Elijah’s life and mocks Ahab for being weak 

• Prophesied to die a violent death, eaten by dogs and out the window

• Jezebel today is used as a derogatory term, implying that a woman is manipulative and morally corrupt 

• historically, Black women have been called Jezebel to justify sexual exploitation by white men 

• 1 Kings 17-19

Athaliah

• considered daughter of King Ahab and Queen Jezebel

• Historically seen as evil as her mother

• Only woman to rule Judah on her own right → killed royal family for killing her son Ahaziah, then takes the throne for herself for six years

• Feminist interpreters view her as a grieving mother and that from the start, Biblical authors tried to frame her as a villain

• 2 Kings 11

Could women be prophets in ancient Israel? 

Yes! Use examples of Miriam → Deborah → Huldah → Noadiah

Miriam

• explicitly called a prophetess in Exodus 15

• Described as prophet Moses and Aaron’s sister, known for leading Israelite women in song and dance after crossing the Red Sea

• Later in Micah, Miriam is mentioned alongside her brother prophets as Israel’s past leaders → affirming her prophetic significance even as a woman

• Challenged Moses’ leadership b/c of his marriage to a Cushite foreign woman → God cast judgement and she had leprosy

• Exodus 15, Micah 6

Deborah

• only female judge in Israel, also prophetess, and military commander

• Instructed Barak, an Israelite military leader, to victory over Canaanite army. Barak refused to go without Deborah → showcased her leadership skills even as a woman 

• Deborah’s narrative proved that women could have leadership roles outside the home and that God does not discriminate on the basis of sex 

Huldah

• female prophet that delivers authoritative prophecy for King Josiah 

• Her story is significant because instead of consulting male prophets such as Jeremiah, King Josiah chooses to consult Huldah

• Narrative highlights her high status and respected authority 

Noadiah

• only mentioned once as a prophetess, but portrayed in a negative light

• opposed Nehemiah’s mission to rebuild Jerusalem’s wall, intimidating him

• Although her story is brief and viewed in a negative context, her title as prophetess is still significant because it indicates that she held a position of religious authority

Why is the biblical God usually imagined as male?

1. The patriarchal structure of ancient Israel automatically assumed that God was male because men held authority in religion, politics, and homes → God was associated with role of protector, warrior, and leader

2. In Hebrew translations, the word for ‘God’ (Elohim) is grammatically masculine

3. Many metaphors in the Bible were used in masculine terms that held relationships such as “Father”, “Son of Man”, and “Husband to the nation”

4. Ancient Israel in a polytheistic context, so in order to separate their monotheistic religion, chose to worship male God only

Are there any female representations of God of Israel?

• God compares himself as a mother to Israel, comforting ‘her child’ 

• Exemplifies a mother’s tendency to love and nurture her children

• In Isaiah, God compares himself to a woman giving birth → parallels the intensity and pain of his efforts to bring salvation to the Israelites 

• Use of female metaphors offers positive and empowering outlook on women as it shows that God believes that women are strong and resilient

• Feminist interpreters also view female representations as a way to highlight God's divinity because he transcends gender; using both masc. and fem. Imagery shows that God is not limited by human gender

• Isaiah 42-46

Why is the book of Ruth subversive?

• challenges dominant Israelite religious and cultural laws regarding foreigners and gender roles

• Even though Ruth is a Moabite (enemy), she is integrated into Israelite culture

• Paragon of virtue, recognized as worthy by many other Israelites

• Ruth adopted God of Israel as her god, which is unexpected

• Union between Ruth and Boaz is honored and celebrated even though not following levirate marriage or Deuteronomic law prohibiting marrying outside of Israelite population → loyalty surpasses legal expectations and even social norms

• Boaz, high kinsman, chose to go against Mosaic Law (Deuteronomic law) and cultural precedent in order to do what he felt was right 

• In contemporary relevance, story of Ruth affirms inclusion of intercultural relationships, female leadership, and breaking free from ancient xenophobic and patriarchal laws

Naomi

• Israelite woman, mother-in-law to Ruth

• husband and sons die, leaving her with Ruth and Orpah

• Acted as guide and mentor to Ruth, helping her find security by arranging her marriage to Boaz

• becomes the grandmother of Obed, ancestor of king David

• Ruth

Ruth

• Moabite woman, initially married to Naomi’s son, who dies, leaving her widow and childless

• Chooses to stay with Naomi: “Where you go, I will go. Your people shall be my people, and your God my God”

• In Bethlehem, works to provide for Naomi and is acknowledged by Boaz → eventually marries him through Naomi’s guidance 

• Ruth’s narrative in Bible characterized as worthy, faithful → defied traditional norms of foreigners 

Queer Hermeneutics and Female Sexuality in Ruth?

Queer:

• Naomi and Ruth are vulnerable after husbands die → some interpreters theorize that their relationship is depicted as extremely close in Bible 

• Ruth “clung” to Naomi → verb can be seen as becoming ‘one flesh’, which communicated physical closeness 

• Ruth crossed borders of age, nationality, and religion for Naomi

Sexuality:

• For Seduction: Ruth washing and putting on clothes meant to allure Boaz → ‘uncovering his feet’ = euphemism for genitals, implying they had sexual relations

• Against seduction: Ruth’s new clothes and bathing were simply to announce the end of her mourning period of her husband → “uncovering his feet” = is literal, form of respect in Israelite custom 

Either way, story of Ruth challenged patriarchy because it was Ruth that proposed marriage to Boaz.

Is the book of Esther meant to be satire?

• The book of Esther can be read as satire as it uses exaggeration, irony, and humor to mock the Persian royal court and foolishness of King Ahasuerus.

• The story critiques male dominance and shows how a Jewish woman, Esther, outsmarts powerful men and saved her people.

• Scholars have named the book of Esther as fiction, as the details cannot be corroborated by extra biblical records of Queen Vashti or Esther

• Ironic reversal occurs when Haman, the Persian official who plotted to exterminate the Jews, is executed instead, while Mordecai, Esther's cousin, rises to become second in command to the king.

• Esther, commoner and outsider to the Persians, becomes queen and controls her husband’s decision → very unlikely

• These dramatic twists highlight the book's satirical tone and critique the instability of political power and absurdity of female beauty expectations.

Esther

• Jewish woman who became queen of Persia by marrying King Ahasuerus → stops execution of Jews

• Differing interpretations of Esther → some interpreters argue that this book lacks holiness because it does not mention God anywhere, Esther never prays

• However, in Septuagint, Esther’s narrative adapted to fit better into religious context, portraying her as more holy

• Debates of whether or not Esther used her female sexuality and beauty to gain power or whether actions motivated by faith

• Some interpret Esther as clever and strategic, while others see her as reinforcing traditional gender roles by emphasizing the role of beauty in her narrative → used to get what she wants (king was ‘pleased’)

Queen Vashti

• prior queen to Esther, known for her boldness towards the king 

• refused to come in front of the king (unknown if naked or not) → king enraged and made decree that “all women should honor their husbands”

• her rebellion against her own husband of highest rank served as an example of female autonomy to other women at the same time 

• many modern interpreters viewed Vashti as a feminist figure who refused to be objectified and paved the way for Esther to be courageous