AP PSYCHOLOGY - Unit 2: Cognition

Perception

Process of interpreting sensory info to make sense of the world.

Bottom-Up Processing

Using raw sensory input; no prior knowledge.

Top-Down Processing

Using experiences and expectations to interpret info.

Schemas

Mental frameworks that organize knowledge.

Perceptual Set

Readiness to perceive things a certain way.

Context/Experience/Culture

External influences on perception.

Closure

Filling in gaps in what we perceive.

Figure-Ground

Distinguishing object from background.

Proximity

Grouping nearby items together.

Similarity

Grouping similar items together.

Selective Attention

Focusing on one stimulus among many.

Cocktail Party Effect

Hearing your name in a noisy environment.

Inattentional Blindness

Missing things you’re not focused on.

Change Blindness

Failing to notice changes in the environment.

Depth Perception

Seeing 3D from 2D images.

Retinal Disparity

Difference between images from each eye used for depth.

Convergence

Eyes move inward to focus on close objects.

Relative Clarity

Clearer objects are seen as closer.

Relative Size

Smaller objects are perceived as farther away.

Texture Gradient

More detail means the object is closer.

Linear Perspective

Parallel lines converge with distance.

Interposition

One object blocking another appears closer.

Size Constancy

Perceiving an object as the same size despite distance.

Shape Constancy

Perceiving an object as the same shape despite viewing angle.

Phi Phenomenon

Lights blinking appear to move.

Stroboscopic Movement

Rapid still images appear as continuous motion.

Cognition

All mental processes involved in knowing

Concepts

Mental groupings of similar objects or ideas.

Prototypes

Best example of a concept.

Schemas

Mental frameworks for organizing information.

Assimilation

Adding new info to an existing schema without changing it.

Accommodation

Changing schema to incorporate new info.

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts that are quicker but prone to errors.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging based on how something fits a stereotype.

Availability Heuristic

Judging based on what easily comes to mind.

Mental Set

Sticking with solutions that worked before.

Priming

Exposure to one stimulus influences response to another.

Framing

How information is presented affects decisions.

Sunk-Cost Fallacy

Continuing something due to past investment.

Gambler’s Fallacy

Believing past outcomes affect future probabilities.

Executive Functions

Higher-level thinking such as planning and organizing.

Creativity

Producing new and valuable ideas.

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing thoughts to one correct answer.

Divergent Thinking

Generating many possible answers.

Functional Fixedness

Inability to see new uses for familiar items.

Memory

The process of encoding

Explicit Memory

Conscious recall of facts and experiences.

Episodic Memory

Memory of personal experiences.

Semantic Memory

Memory of facts and general knowledge.

Implicit Memory

Unconscious memory of skills or conditioned responses.

Procedural Memory

Memory of how to perform actions or tasks.

Prospective Memory

Remembering to perform future tasks.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)

Strengthening of neural connections to improve memory.

Working Memory Model

System with central executive

Central Executive

Controls focus and attention in working memory.

Phonological Loop

Processes verbal and auditory information.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Processes visual and spatial information.

Multi-Store Model

Memory passes through sensory

Sensory Memory

Immediate

Short-Term Memory

Holds a small amount of info briefly.

Long-Term Memory

Permanent and unlimited storage of information.

Automatic Processing

Unconscious encoding of information.

Effortful Processing

Conscious

Levels of Processing

Structural (shallow)

Encoding

Getting information into memory.

Mnemonic Devices

Memory aids that improve encoding.

Method of Loci

Associating information with physical locations.

Chunking

Grouping information into meaningful units.

Spacing Effect

Distributed practice improves long-term retention.

Massed Practice

Cramming information all at once.

Distributed Practice

Spreading study sessions out over time.

Serial Position Effect

Tendency to remember first and last items best.

Primacy Effect

Better recall for items at the beginning of a list.

Recency Effect

Better recall for items at the end of a list.

Sensory Memory

Brief initial recording of sensory input.

Short-Term Memory

Temporary storage for small amounts of info.

Working Memory

Active system that processes information.

Long-Term Memory

Permanent

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating information to keep it active in memory.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Connecting new info to meaning or prior knowledge.

Highly Superior Autobiographical Memory (HSAM)

Exceptional recall of personal life events.

Retrograde Amnesia

Loss of previously stored memories.

Anterograde Amnesia

Inability to form new memories.

Alzheimer’s Disease

Progressive brain disorder causing memory loss.

Infantile Amnesia

Inability to recall early childhood experiences.

Retrieval

Getting information out of memory storage.

Recall

Retrieving info without cues.

Recognition

Identifying previously learned info with cues.

Retrieval Cues

Triggers that help access stored memories.

Context-Dependent Memory

Better recall when in the same environment as learning.

State-Dependent Memory

Better recall when in same physical state as learning.

Mood-Congruent Memory

Recall improves when mood matches learning mood.

Testing Effect

Repeated testing strengthens memory retention.

Metacognition

Awareness of one’s own thought processes.

Forgetting Curve

Memory loss occurs quickly then levels off.

Encoding Failure

Information never entered memory.

Interference

Other information blocks retrieval.

Proactive Interference

Old information interferes with new.

Retroactive Interference

New information interferes with old.