Unit 5 & 6 Review (Time Period 3 so far till Imperialism)

• the supreme power or authority of a state to govern itself independently with it’s own territory

• the right and power of a power or a nation to govern themselves

• a political concept that refers to dominant power or supreme authority

Sovereignty

• a period primarily in the 16th and 17th centuries where significant advancements in science, particularly in astronomy, physics, and mathematics, occurred, leading to a radical shift in how people understood the natural world, marked by the development of the scientific method and a reliance on observation and experimentation over traditional beliefs

• a series of events that took place in Europe during the 17th century and marked advances in the natural sciences

• events that marked the emergence of science

Scientific Revolution

• refers to the prominent English psychist and mathematician considered a central figure in the Scientific Revolution

• his work laid the foundation for classical mechanics, gravitation, and calculus (playing a pivotal role in the Scientific Revolution) and the Enlightenment thought

Isaac Newton

• the movement where thinkers/philosophers sought to discover natural laws that governed human society

• they applied logic and reason to the government

Enlightenment

• the core beliefs, ideas, and systems of thought that guided different societies and civilizations throughout history

• the study of the most basic and profound matters of human existence

Philosophies

• a theoretical agreement between the members of a society, where individuals give up some of their freedoms in exchange for the protection and benefits provided by a government, essentially outlining the rights and responsibilities of both the citizens and their rulers

• when a group of people agree to give up certain rights and accept a central authority in order to protect their other rights

• Human societies, endowed with natural rights, must construct governments of their own will to protect their natural rights

Social Contract

• the fundamental rights that individuals are believed to possess inherently, simply by being human, such as the right to life, liberty, and property, which are not granted by any government or authority but are considered universal and inalienable

• the fundamental human rights that individuals possess simply by being human, often considered to be universal and inalienable

Natural Rights

• women’s rights activist

• was a British writer, philosopher, and advocate of women’s rights

• suggested that universal human rights applied to women as well as men

Mary Wollstonecraft

• a cultural and intellectual movement that emerged in late 18th century Europe, characterized by a strong emphasis on emotion, imagination, individual experience, and a deep appreciation for nature, often seen as a reaction against the rationalism and order of the Enlightenment period and the growing industrialization of society

• an artistic, literary, and intellectual movement that emerged in the late 18th century as a response to the Industrial Revolution and the Enlightenment

Romanticism

• generally refers to a political and social philosophy that aims to preserve traditional institutions, values, and practices

• a political or theological orientation advocating the preservation of the best in society and opposing radical changes

• Political viewpoint with origins in western Europe during the 19th century; opposed revolutionary goals; advocated restoration of monarchy and defense of the church.

Conservatism

• a philosophical belief system that emerged during the Enlightenment, where individuals believe in a supreme creator God who set the universe in motion with natural laws and then does not intervene in human affairs, with the evidence for this creator being found through human reason and observation of nature, rather than through any specific religious text or revelation

• the belief in a supreme being or creator—Nature's God—who does not intervene in the universe or interact with humankind

• were popular amongst Enlightenment thinkers, applied science and reason over religious dogma

Deism

• the belief that a group of people sharing a common culture, language, and history should be united under their own independent government, prioritizing loyalty to their nation above other interests

• an ideology that asserts that a nation is formed by a group of people with a common identity, language, history, and set of customs

Nationalism

• a political or economic doctrine that emphasizes individual rights, equality of opportunity, and individual autonomy

• a group of political, social, and economic theories that are based on liberty, equality, and consent of the governed

Liberalism

• individuals or groups advocating for drastic and fundamental societal change, often pushing for extreme political reforms or revolutions, going beyond the mainstream views of their time, essentially calling for a complete restructuring of the existing system at its roots

• thoughts and beliefs that challenge established norms, authority, and traditional systems of thought, often advocating for significant changes in society, politics, and philosophy

Radicals

• was an English philosopher

• his ideas were QUESTIONED by John Locke

• Main belief: humans are naturally evil and they NEED to be controlled by absolute rulers

Thomas Hobbes

• was an English philosopher

• worked to discover natural laws of politics

• attacked absolute monarchs & advocated for constitutional monarchs → believed humans were naturally good

• Main beliefs: all people have natural rights and it’s the government’s job to protect these rights

John Locke

• French noble & philosopher

• Main beliefs: in order to check the power of the ruler, power must be separated

• Greatly influence the US Constitution

Baron Von Montesquieu

• French philosopher

• condemned legal & social privileges enjoyed by aristocrats

• Main beliefs: political equality for all people regardless of class

  • People = sovereign

  • General will of the people should influence laws

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

• an German philosopher and key figure in the Enlightenment

• Main beliefs: true freedom lay in the ability to govern oneself according to rational moral laws than being driven by external influences or personal desires

• believed that morality (ethics) is based on reason

Immanuel Kant

• the division of government responsibilities into distinct branches to limit one branch from exercising the core functions of another

• broken into legislative, executive, and judicial

• this concept is largely attributed to the Enlightenment philosopher Montesquieu

Separation of powers

• refers to the political principle aimed at preventing one nation or empire from becoming overwhelmingly powerful and dominating others

• involves the distribution of power among various states or groups so that no single entity can impose its will unilaterally on the rest

• a situation in which states of the world have roughly equal power

• more equality and balanced structure

Balance of powers

• refers to the legislative body

• or assembly that represents the people and is responsible for making laws and policies within a government

• are key to a system of representative government

Parliament

• a pivotal event in English history during 1688-1689 where King James II, a Catholic, was overthrown by Parliament and replaced by his Protestant daughter Mary and her Dutch husband, William of Orange

• permanently established Parliament as the ruling power of England (and later the United Kingdom)

• represents a shift of absolute monarchy to constitutional monarchy

Glorious Revolution

• a person recognized as a legal member of a political community, with associated rights and responsibilities within that society

• a member of a state or nation who is legally recognized as having rights, duties, and responsibilities within that political entity

Citizen

• the legal and social rights that guarantee equal protection under the law for all citizens, regardless of race, gender, religion, or other personal characteristics, often achieved through political movements aimed at dismantling discriminatory practices and ensuring equal access to opportunities like voting, education, and employment

• the rights that protect individuals’ freedom and ensure equal treatment under the law, regardless of race, religion, gender, or other characteristics

Civil rights

• French and Indian War

• conflict in both Europe and North America (Britain & Prussia vs. France, Austria, and Russia)

• was a conflict between France and Great Britain where they fought over colonial territories with British ultimately emerging as the dominant power

Seven Years War

• refers to social hierarchy where society is divided into distinct classes (in pre-revolutionary France)

  • First estate = clergy

  • Second estate = nobles

  • Third estate = commoners

Estate System

• influenced by the Enlightenment

• was a radical and social upheaval in France (this marked the end of absolute monarchy and the rise of new implemental ideas)

• Major events: Declaration of the Rights of Man, Reign of Terror, Guillotine (a death machine), and the restoration of order (Napoleon Bonaparte)

French Revolution

• a device used for beheading people

• a death machine used in the French Revolution

Guillotine

• a statement declaring basic human rights

• a document adopted during the French Revolution, outlining fundamental individual rights like liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression

• proclaims that all men are born free and equal in rights

Declaration of the Rights of Man

• was a Founding Father and the third president of the United States

• French Revolution: was a strong supporter and even allowed his home to be a meeting place for rebels (however he wavered during the most violent stages)

• Haitian Revolution: favored limited aid to suppress the revolt, but also suggested that slaveowners should comprise with escaped slaves

• Main beliefs: believed that a little rebellion was necessary in the political world, but that unsuccessful rebellions established the encroachments on the rights of the people that produced them

Thomas Jefferson

• first state to experiment with using the ideas of the Enlightenment

• Steps:

  • Britain’s 13 CHARTER colonies

  • “No taxation without representation”

  • Declaration of Independence

  • Revolutionary War

  • Treaty of Paris

  • Creation of the United States

American Revolution

• the document signed by American colonies on July 4, 1776 which formally announced the separation from Great Britain, declaring themselves free and independent states

• announced the separation of 13 North American British colonies from Great Britain

Declaration of Independence

• middle class males

• the social class of wealthy middle class individuals

• merchants and wealthy people

Bourgeoisie

• a pivotal movement in the French Revolution, when representatives of the Third estate swore to remain united until a constitution was established for France

• the National assembly swore not to stop meeting until France had a constitution

Tennis Court Oath

• the legal practice where the firstborn child, typically the eldest son, inherits the majority or the entirety of their parents’ estate

• a law of inheritance in which title, property, and/or wealth is passed from the deceased to their firstborn child

Primogeniture

• escaped African slaves who established their own independent communities away from the control of colonial powers

• African people from various tribes who escaped from slavery and started their own communities

Maroons

• American born descendants of Spanish settlers

• people of European descent who were born in colonies of Spanish or French America

Creoles

• people born in Spain

• Spanish settlers who were born in Spain who lived in Spanish colonies in the Americas

Peninsulares

• was a French military and political leader

• was also a general of the French Revolution and the ruler of France

• took much of Europe, including the Spain and Portugual inspiring other Revs

• was eventually defeated and exiled

Napoleon Bonaparte

• was also formally known as the Civil Code of 1804

• a set of laws established under Napoleon Bonaparte that reformed the legal framework in France

• the written laws developed by Napoleon Bonaparte to modernize and unify France

Napoleonic Code

• a form of government in which an all powerful-king or queen rules a state

• this form of government was popular in Europe toward the end of the medieval period all the way up to the 18th century

• rulers had total control over the country

Absolute Monarch

• was the last king of France before the French Revolution

• he wasn’t ready to run the government (very problematic)

King Louis XVI

• was a French politician and leading figure in the French Revolution

• played a prominent role in the Reign of Terror and was responsible for sending thousands of innocent men and women to their deaths

• he himself was executed after his colleagues turned against him

Maximilien Robespierre

• Mexican Roman Catholic priest

• fought with poor farmer workers for rights (beginning in 1810)

• was beheaded a year later in 1811

Miguel Hidalgo

• became the leader again fighting for the poor once Miguel Hidalgo got executed

• was a Mexican Roman Catholic priest

• was later captured by the Spanish colonial authorities and executed for treason in 1815

Jose Morales

• refers to the prominent South American revolutionary leader who played a crucial role in liberating Argentina, Chile, and Peru from Spanish colonial rule

• he was known as a national hero in these countries

• was a Parish priest

• was far more revolutionary and organized than Hidalgo

Jose de San Martin

• the first emperor of Brazil

• played a crucial role in declaring British independence from Portugal in 1822

• making him the “Liberator” of Brazil

Dom Pedro I

• tutored on Rousseau during his travels to Europe & the United States

• wanted to create something similar to the United States in Latin America (Gran Colombia)

• established a national congress in 1811 and declared independence from Spain

• prominent Venezuelan revolutionary leader

Simon Bolivar

• inspired by North American, French, and & Haitian Revolutions

• Intellectuals had become familiar with the ideas of the European Enlightenment 

• Took advantage of Spain’s weakness & distraction by Napoleon’s invasion in 1808

  Main reasons for revolution:

  • Trade restrictions → could only trade with the “motherland”

  • High taxes 

  • Rigid colonial social structure that limited rights & privileges for many people 

    • Creoles vs. Peninsulares 

Spanish American Revolution

• a short lived republic in South America that existed from 1819 to 1831

• was united under the leadership of Simon Bolivar

Gran Colombia

• emerges as a key military general in the Haitian Revolution

• led a successful slave revolt and emancipated the slaves in the French colony of Saint Domingue (Haiti)

Toussaint Louverture

• a document written by Simon Bolivar in 1815 while he was in Jamaica, outlining his vision for independence and unification of Spanish colonies in South America

• expressing Simon Bolivar’s thoughts on the struggles for independence in Latin America and the future of the region

Jamaica Letter

• 1st massive revolt = 1791

• triggered by the outbreak of French Revolution and the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen

• Former enslaved peoples are able to gain control of the countryside and key cities

• Key military general = Toussaint Louverture

Haitian Revolution

• the wealthy white plantation owners who held significant power in the French colony of Saint Domingue

• especially meaning “Great Whites”

Grand Blancs

• the poor, white lower class of Saint Domingue

• especially meaning “Little Whites”

Petit Blancs

• French colony in the Caribbean

• colony’s purpose = plantations

  • Richest colony in the world at that time

  • 8,000 plantations

  • Produced 40% of the world’s sugar

  • 50% of the world’s coffee

Saint Domingue

• originally called Saint Domingue

• signifies the first successful slave rebellion in the Americas

• means “rugged” in the Taino language

Haiti

• the idea that the power of the government comes from the consent of the people (The power to govern was in the hands of the people)

• stating that the people are the source of political authority and have the right to choose their leaders and determine how they are governed

Popular sovereignty

• refers to the political movements or ideologies that claim to represent the interests of the general population

• particularly those of ordinary people, rather than the elites

Populist politics

• the political principle that a people, usually with a shared national identity, have the right to choose their own government and political status, often including the ability to form their own independent state

• the process by which a group of people form their own state and choose their own government

Self-Determination

• a group of people with common cultural characteristics

• a large of group of people who consider themselves as a collective based on shared characteristics

Nation

• a political movement that aimed to establish a Jewish homeland in the land of Israel

• European Jewish movement that argued that Jews return to their holy land

Zionism

• a 19th century Austrian journalist who believed that the European society would never allow Jews to assimilate

• is recognized as the “father of modern political Zionism”

Theodor Herzl

• a liberal monarchist who wanted a united Italy ruled under a constitution by the king of Piedmont-Sardinia

• played a crucial role in unifying Italy during the mid-19th century

• was the first prime minister of Italy

Count Cavour

• refers to the prominent Italian nationalist and revolutionary who played a key role in the movement of Italy unification during the 19th century

• advocating for a unified Italy through republican ideals and actively promoting the idea of a nation-state based on popular sovereignty

Giuseppe Mazzini

• represents a key figure in the Italian unification movement

• known for leading a volunteer army of "Red Shirts" to conquer southern Italy, significantly contributing to the creation of a unified Kingdom of Italy during the mid-19th century; essentially, he is considered one of the "fathers of the Italian nation.” (Risorigmento)

Giuseppe Garibaldi

• a political approach that prioritizes practical considerations and the pursuit of national interests above moral or ideological concerns

• essentially the meaning “politics in reality”

Realpolitik

• a French policy for military consumption

• a policy of mass national consumption, often in face of invasion

Levee en masse

• fear of the rise/power of commoners

• NO voting rights for middle or lower class without property

• international diplomatic meetings to discuss and agree upon a possible new layout of the European political and constitutional order after the downfall of the French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte

• nothing for woman, immigrants

• a meeting of European nations that set out a strategy to maintain peace and stability throughout the continent (after the downfall of Napoleon Bonaparte)

Congress of Vienna

• was a leading European diplomat and statesmen who was deeply affected by the French Revolution and its aftermath

• called the French Revolution “a hateful time” for Europe

• is primarily known for his leading role in the Congress of Vienna following Napoleon's defeat

Klemens Von Metternich

• the last imperial dynasty that was ruled by the Manchu people

• marking the end of imperial China and the beginning of the Republic of China

Qing Dynasty

• a series of conflicts between China and Western powers (Britain) over trade imbalances and the illegal opium trade

  • in which Britain WON!

Opium Wars

• was a Chinese empress and regent who controlled the Qing dynasty for almost 50 years

• a major figure in Chinese history

• was mainly a Manchu noblewomen who effectively controlled the Chinese government in the late Qing dynasty (from 1861 until her death in 1908)

Empress Cixi

• an act in which it made illegal for Westerners to trade in Japan

  • happened mainly because of the suspicion of European influences

Japanese Act of Seclusion

• a United states navy officer who led to the military expedition to Japan

  • forced Japan to open the ports to foreign trade or else the Americans will fight

Commodore Matthew Perry

• established strong control over local daimyo, and enforced traditional Confucian policies

  • refers to the military government that ruled Japan from 1603 to 1868'

  • led by the Tokugawa family where a powerful military leader as a “shogun” held centralized control over a country

Tokugawa Shogunate

• a set of five principles issued by Emperor Meiji in 1868 transforming Japan into a modern-nation state

  Five principles:

  • creation of assemblies

  • public discussion

  • allowing people of all social classes to participate in the government

  • people could pursue jobs that they wanted

  • to openly seek out knowledge all over the world to improve and empower Japan

Charter Oath

• was a political transformation in Japan during 1868

  • allowed for Japan to be a more industrial nation-state

  • transformed Japan

  • because of this, Japan become recognized as a world power

Meiji Restoration

• a conflict between China (during the Qing dynasty) and Japan that took place, primarily over control of Korea

  • Japan WON!

Sino-Japanese War

• a conflict between Russia and Japan in which Russia invaded Korea

  • Japan WON!

Russo-Japanese War

• the ruler that was appointed to control Ottoman forces in Egypt

  • was a military leader

  • managed to bring about Egyptian independence

  • put in motion a campaign of modernization (beginning with the military)

Mohammad Ali

• a canal connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea’s Gulf of Suez

  • built between 1809 and 1869

  • European countries wanted to control this canal as it was a shortcut to access other colonial empires

Suez Canal

• refers to the prominent Chinese revolutionary leader who played a crucial role in overthrowing the Qing dynasty and establishing the Republic of China

  • was considered as “father of modern China”

  • also known for his political philosophy based on the “Three Principles of the People” - nationalism, democracy, and the nation’s livelihood

  • led the Chinese nationalist party (Kuomintang)

Sun Yat-sen

• an elite infantry corps that served as a standing army of the Ottoman Empire

  • were soldiers in the Ottoman Empire who had once been Christians, prior to their enslavement and forced service in the Ottoman army

Janissaries

• the mandatory enlistment of citizens into military service

  • means that the government forces its citizens to join the armed forces (also commonly known as the “draft”)

  • legally requires people to join the army

Conscription

• is the capital city of Egypt

  • a major center of trade, culture, and politics in the Arab world

  • the country’s primary centre for economic production and financial control

Cairo

• a series of modernization efforts implemented within the Ottoman Empire between 1839 and 1876, aimed at transforming the empire from a theocratic system to a more secular and modern state by adopting Western-style legal, administrative, and military reforms, largely in response to pressure from European powers and internal unrest

  • key areas that were included was: education, military organization, legal codes, and financial systems

Tanzimat reforms

• a period in late 19th century China where the Qing Dynasty attempted to modernize its military and institutions by adopting Western technology and practices, primarily to counter foreign threats following the Opium Wars, while still maintaining traditional Chinese political structures

  • trying to “strengthen themselves” by incorporating Western power without fully abandoning their culture

Self-Strengthening Movement

• was a part of an effort to modernize and unify China after the fall of the Qing dynasty

  • represented the push for national sovereignty, modernization, and resistance to foreign imperialism in China

    Key goals:

  • establish a unified, central government

  • ending the fragmentation caused by warlord rule

  • promoting modernization and nationalism to compete with foreign powers

    Key leaders:

  • mainly Sun Yat-sen

Chinese Nationalist Party (Kuomintang)

• a political reform movement within the late Ottoman Empire that aimed to modernize the state by pushing for a constitutional government, overthrowing the absolute rule of Sultan Abdul Hamid II, and advocating for Turkish nationalism

  • a reformist political group in the late Ottoman Empire

  • advocating for modernization, secularism, and national identity

  • a coalition of reform groups that led to the revolutionary movement against Sultan Abdul Hamid II

Young Turks

• a traditional Chinese practice where a person would kneel and touch their forehead to the ground as a sign of deep respect or submission

  • the act of showing deep respect humbly

Kowtow

• a multinational bank with origins in British Hong Kong, established in 1865 to facilitate trade between Europe and Asia

  • making it a significant player in the global economy during the era of European imperialism; its name reflects its historical connection to these two major trading centers in Asia.

Hong Kong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC)

• the process where a country or region experiences a decline in the manufacturing industry

  • a reduction in industrial jobs and activity

Deindustrialization

• Indian soldiers who served in the armies of European trading companies (particularly the East India company) during the British colonialization in India

  • infantry soldiers

Sepoys

• widespread scarcity of food within a population

  • led by widespread malnutrition and death from starvation

Famine

• a political or economic theory of social organization that advocates the mean of production, distribution and exchange

• and this should be regulated and controlled by the community

Socialism

• the outline for how a nation becomes wealthy and how the division of labor falls within a wealthy vs. non wealthy society

• was a book written by Adam Smith in 1776

Wealth of Nations

• an economic system where private individuals own the means of production

• economic system in which private actors own and control property in accord with their interests, and demand and supply freely set prices in markets in a way that can serve the best interests of society

• this is not done by the government

Capitalism