Principles of Psychological Research Exam 1 Study Guide

Covers Chapter 1: Psychology as a Way of Thinking, Chapter 2: Sources of Information, and Chapter 3: Four Claims, Three Validities

What is empiricism?

Involves using evidence from the senses or instruments that assist the senses as the basis for conclusions; base conclusions from systematic observations of repeated phenomenon; one observation is not enough

What is the theory-data cycle?

Theory serves as basis to generate hypothesis, hypothesis tested by collecting data, data supports or refutes hypothesis which allows researchers to modify/refute theory; a repeating cycle

Theory constructed based on observation, generate hypothesis from theory, collect data, strengthen/modify/refute theory depending on data

What is the basic-applied research cycle?

Basic research → Translational Research → Applied Research

Basic research is aimed at enhancing a body of knowledge, often done in the lab; Translational research is the use of information from basic research to develop and test concepts, also primarily in the lab; Applied research is aimed at identifying and solving a problem in the real world, often done in the field

What is the peer-review cycle?

Submit a research paper to a journal → Paper assessed by a group of experts → Author revises paper based on feedback

What is the journal-journalism cycle?

Information from a journal can be misinterpreted or misrepresented when being turn into journalism

Avoid being misled; go to the source, maintain a skeptical mindset when it comes to journalism, understand what makes a good study

Why is it important to know how to be a consumer of research?

Know how to understand, learn from, and ask appropriate questions about research; Know how to differentiate accurate and useful research from dubious and misinforming research; Know how to evaluate information; be able to utilize evidence-based treatments

Why is it important to know how to be a producer of research?

Writing in APA format, working in a laboratory, know how to properly conduct research, know how to interpret research results

What is the difference between an intuitive thinker and a scientific thinker?

Intuition is basing conclusions on a hunch or a feeling while scientific thinking utilizes empiricism; Intuition has no comparison group, does not consider confounds, and is not probabilistic

What are confounds?

Alternative explanations; any variable other than variable that is being manipulated can affect results

What is a comparison group?

Allows to compare what would happen both with or without treatment, with different forms of treatment, etc

What is good story bias?

When we accept a conclusion because it sounds good or makes sense, even if the story is false

What is blind spot bias?

Bias about being biased, most individuals think they are less biased than others

What is availability bias?

Being persuaded by what easily comes to mind

What is confirmation bias?

Focusing on evidence we like best, aka cherry-picking

What is present bias?

Failing to think about what we cannot see

What does it mean to be probabilistic?

Findings are not expected to explain all cases all the time, there are exceptions.

What sources are peer-reviewed?

Empirical studies, systematic reviews, meta-analyses

What is a variable?

Something that varies; must at least have two levels/values

What is a constant?

Something that could potentially vary but only has one level in a study question

What is a measured variable?

A variable whose levels are simply observed and recorded

What is a manipulated variable?

A variable a researcher controls

What is a conceptual variable?

Abstract concepts that must be carefully defined at a theoretical level, also known as constructs

What is an operational variable?

Turning a concept of interest into a measured or manipulated variable by testing hypotheses with empirical research

What is a type I error?

False positive

What is a type II error?

False negative, or a miss

What is a frequency claim?

Describe a particular rate or degree of a single variable; focus on only one variable

What is an association claim?

Argues that one level of a variable is likely to be associated with a particular level of another variable; also referred to as correlation; states a relationship between at least two variables

What is a causal claim?

Argues that one of the variables is responsible for changing the other; start with a positive or negative association, use language suggesting that one variable causes the other

What is validity?

Appropriateness or accuracy of a claim

What is construct validity?

Refers to how well a conceptual variable is operationalized; how well are constructs measured

What is external validity?

How well the results of a study generalize to, or represent, people or contexts besides those in the original study

What is internal validity?

Indication of a study’s ability to eliminate alternative explanations for the association

What is statistical validity?

The extent to which a study's statistical conclusions are accurate, reasonable, and replicable; Strength of relationship among variables

What types of validity are important for causal claims?

Construct validity, external validity, statistical validity, internal validity

What types of validity are important for frequency claims?

Construct validity, external validity

What types of validity are important for association claims?

Construct validity, external validity, statistical validity

What are the three criteria for causation?

Covariance, temporal precedence, and lack of confounding variables

What is covariance?

Extent to which two variables are observed to go together; determined by the results of a study

What is temporal precedence?

One variable comes first in time before the other variable

What type of study is best for testing frequency claims?

Observational study, one variable measured

What type of study is best for testing association claims?

Correlational study, both variables measured

What type of study is best for testing causal claims?

Experimental study, one variable measured one variable manipulated

What is the point estimate?

Value within your sample results

What is the confidence interval or margin of error?

Precision of the point estimate; range of values where the true population value is

How is Harlow’s study an example of the theory-data cycle in action?

Harlow studied the contact/comfort theory vs. the cupboard theory and used the data collected to support only one of the theories (contact/comfort theory)

How does the series “Beyond Scared Straight” represent why it is important to be a good consumer of research?

While the concept of the series makes sense, in reality data shows the opposite effect on juveniles; if you only used information from the series, you would not be getting the correct information

How is the “How Biased Are You” poll and example of bias blind spot?

Many participants claimed to be less biased than the general public

Why were the Wakefield Autism studies redacted?

Found data to be based on scientific misconduct, lacked comparison group