Topic 1 Mind Matters

Psychology

= Study of the human mind and its wide-ranging functions and influences

• both a science and a profession

• Studies how individuals and groups to better understand how people, communities, and societies function and ways for them achieve them

Psychiatrists

= a medical professional specialising in the diagnosis and treatment of mental illness.

• Medical doctors

• Prescribe medication

• Diagnose illness, manage treatment, and provide a range of therapies for mental illness

Psychologist

= someone who studies the human mind, emotions and behaviour, and how different situations have an effect on people.

• Not medical doctors

• Can't prescribe medication

• Focus on providing psychotherapy (talk therapy) to help patients

• More likely to see people with conditions that can be helped effectively with psychological treatments

Thoughts, Feelings, Behaviours

• Thoughts → assist us in making decisions and carrying out many tasks automatically

• Behaviours → our actions, and can be easily observed

• Feelings → the perceptions of events within the body or our internal state

Cognitive Dissonance

When thoughts, feelings, and behaviours are not aligned and cause tension

Ancient Greek Philosophers

• Psychology has its roots in the ancient Greek philosophers (e.g. Platos, Socrates, Aristotle)

• Dealt with questions about nature vs nurture and what has more of an impact on the people we become

• They look at motivation, memory, desire, free will and how we perceive the world.

William Wundt

• Widely regarded as the ‘Father of Psychology’

• Started the first lab to study human minds in 1879

• Established Psychology as a formal field of study

• Interested in Introspeciation (self-observation)

William James

• Regarded as the ‘Father of modern Psychology’

• Philosopher, Historian, and Psychologist

• Focused on the mind and body

• Wrote ‘Principles in Psychology’ in 1890 (first psychology textbook)

Types of Psychologists

1. Developmental Psychology

2. Forensic Psychology

3. Educational Psychology

4. Industrial/Organisational Psychology

5. Clinical Psychology

6. Neuropsychology

7. Sports Psychology

TIP TO REMEMBER:

"A Developmental psychologist found a crime, so she called Forensic psychology. The crime was at a school, so Educational psychology helped. The workplace stress needed Industrial psychology. One worker had anxiety, so Clinical psychology treated them. They also had a head injury, so Neuropsychology assessed it. To recover, they worked with Sports psychology."

7 Major Perspectives of Modern Psychology

"Pretty Big Cats Can't Eat Healthy Bugs"

• Psychodynamic

• Behavioural

• Cognitive

• Cross-Cultural

• Evolutionary

• Humanistic

• Biological

Pseudoscience

= A collection of beliefs or practices mistakenly regarded as being based on scientific method

• Generally well-established beliefs that have not changed over centuries.

• May provide alternative explanations for things

Examples of Pseudosciences

• Astrology, Palmistry, Tarot Cards (predicting future events)

• Phrenology, Psychic surgery, Crystal healing (diagnosis & treatment)

• Clairvoyance, Psychokinesis, Precognition (physical/psychological phenomena)

Astrology = Believe the positions of stars/planets determine personality traits

Palmistry = Claims lines on hands reveal personality & someone's future

Tarot Cards = Believing that cards can show the future

Phrenology = Claims the shape of the skull reveals personality traits

Psychic Surgery = A pseudoscientific medical fraud where people create an illusion of performing surgery 

Crystal Healing = alternative medicine technique where people believe crystals can heal people

Clairvoyance = Claimed supernatural ability to know hidden information or see spirits. Not scientifically proven.

Psychokinesis = Where objects are supposedly objects are able to move as a result of the mind

Precognition = The psychic ability to see events in the future

Psychology as a Science

• Research thoughts, feelings, behaviours people have in common

• Study theories using scientific approach - don't jump to conclusions

• Critical thinking crucial for analysing, providing alternative explanations, and generalising ideas

Ethical Consideration

• Precautions to protect participants' physical & psychological well-being

• Research must follow guidelines & be approved by ethics committee

• Help make judgements (right vs wrong)

• Ensure no harm to participants where possible

• Respect individual rights of all participants per ethical guidelines

Confidentiality (Ethical Consideration)

• A participant’s rights to privacy in terms of access, storage, and disposal of information collected about them 

• Private information must not be shared without the participants consent

Voluntary Participation (Ethical Consideration)

A participant must willingly take part in an experiment, free from pressure or threats

Informed Consent (Ethical Consideration)

• Written and informed permission from each participant, stating they understand the necessary information about the study

• People under 18 or who have a severe disability must gain consent from a legal guardian

Withdrawal Rights (Ethical Considerations)

Participant is able to leave a study or withdraw their data at any time, without negative consequences or pressures to continue

Debriefing (Ethical Considerations)

• After the study, the researcher must inform participants of the true nature of the experiment & what was achieved from it

• Any learned responses should be extinguished if they could cause harm to the participants

Beneficence (Ethical Considerations)

• Research must be designed to maximise benefits to society & participants

• Harm must be minimised

7 steps of Research Method

1. Identify the problem

2. Formulate a hypothesis

3. Designing the research method

4. Collecting Date (experiment)

5. Analysing Data (Raw data/commenting on trends)

6. Interpreting Data (link to psychological theory)

7. Reporting the research findings

Variables

• any factor that can change in amount or kind over time

• Things or factors which are examined for change or manipulated throughout an experiment

• Cause (IV) + Effect (DV) = Relationship (Prediction from hypothesis: Anticipated change in results?)

Independent Variable (IV)

• Variable that is manipulated in order to see the effects it has on the DV

• As the researcher, this is what ‘I Vary’)

Dependent Variable (DV)

Variable that is measured to see if it was affected by a change in the IV

Aim (Research Question)

• Outlines the purpose of the investigation

• E.g. ‘The aim of this study is to explore the differences in gender regarding the motivation to play team sports.

Hypothesis

• A general prediction about the outcome of an experiment

• It should include:

  • How the IV will affect the DV

  • Whether the DV will increase or decrease participant outcomes

How to write a hypothesis

1. What is the IV & DV?

2. What is the population?

   • E.g. It was hypothesised/predicted/expected that population who have IV as experienced by experimental group will have prediction (more than OR less than) on DV than those who have IV as experienced by control group.

Experimental Group

• Group that experiences the IV in a manipulated way. 

• They are ‘experimented on’

Population

The larger group that a researcher is interested in

Sample

• A group that is a subset/portion of the population chosen to be studied for research purposes (participants)

• Must accurately represent the population

• The larger the sample, the more likely it will accurately represent the population

Participant Allocation

• Process of assigning participants to either the experimental group of the control group.

• All participants have an equal chance of being in either group.

Research Designs

• 3rd step in Psychological research is to decide on an experimental design (How participants are allocated in groups)

• Multiple ways to do this, both have advantages and disadvantages

• Types are Between-subjects design, Within-subjects design, & Mixed Design

Between-Subjects Design

• Participants are divided into groups, and they only take part in one condition/group (experimental or control)

• Advantage → Time efficient and cost effective (Don’t need to be matched on relevant characteristics + no need to repeat experiment)

• Disadvantage → Participant differences can affect results

Within-Subjects Design

• Same participants are in both the control & experimental conditions

• Participate in one condition first, and then the other

  Advantage → Less participants, eliminates participant differences between the groups

  Disadvantages → Takes more time + order effects may occur (The condition they do 1st may change results) + can lead to boredom and/or fatigue. 

Mixed Design

Combines elements of both within + between designs

Structure = 

1. Split people into groups

2. Everyone takes a pre-test

3. Each group gets a different treatment/condition

4. Everyone takes a post-test

Strengths → Allows researchers to compare treatments/conditions, people/groups and results over time

Limitations → Can be costly & time consuming + Demanding for researchers & assistants to be across mmmmm        multiple methods.

Our Brains

• Are like computers

• Receives and processes information from the sense organs + glands, and sends messages back to the body through the neural pathways.

• Our brains control our thoughts, behaviours, and feelings

Cerebral Hemispheres

• Cerebrum is divided into 2 major parts; the right and left cerebral hemispheres

• Longitudinal fissure is the deep groove down the middle of the brain 

Corpus Callosum 

• The brain’s hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum

• It is large, C-shaped nerve fiber bundle

• Allows neural messages to be sent back and forth between the 2 hemispheres

Contralateral Control 

• Contralateral means opposite

• The right side of the brain controls the left side of the body

• The left side of the brain controls the right side of the body

Hemispheric Specialisation 

• This is the different functions performed by the different hemispheres of the brain.

• The left and right brain specialise in different functions

Left Side

• Logical/reasoning

• Sequencing

• Linear thinking

• Mathematics

• Facts

• Thinking in words

Right Side

• Creativity

• Imagination/daydreaming

• Holistic thinking

• Music/rhythm

• Arts

• Nonverbal cues

• Emotions

Frontal Lobe

• Located at the front of the brain

• Associated with reasoning, motor skills, higher level cognition, and expressive language

• The motor cortex is in the back, near the central sulcus

• Damage to the frontal lobe can lead to changes in socialization, attention, and increased risk-taking behaviors

Motor Cortex

• Receives info from various lobes & utilises the information to carry out body movements

• Found in the frontal lobe

Occipital Lobe

• Located at the back portion of the brain

• Associated with interpreting visual stimuli and information

• Contains the primary visual cortex, which receives & interprets info from the retinas of the eyes

• Damage can cause visual problems like trouble recognising objects, identifying colours, & recognising words

Temporal Lobe

• Located on the bottom section of the brain

• Contains the primary auditory cortex, which interprets sounds and language we hear

• Contains the hippocampus, that’s why this lobe is also associated with the formation of memories

• Damage can cause problems with memory, speech perception, and language skills.

Parietal Lobe

• Located in the middle section of the brain 

• Associated with processing tactile sensory info. E.g. touch, pressure, and pain

• Contains the somatosensory cortex which is essential to the processing of the body’s senses

• Damage can cause difficulty with writing and maths, disorders of language, and the inability to perceive objects normally

Nervous System

• Billions of cells, mainly neurons

• Nerons form complex networks/pathways for continuous info transfer

Neuron

• An individual nerve cell that receives, processes, and/or transmits info to other cells

• Often referred to as a ‘building block’ of the nervous system

Myelin

• White, fatty substance that coats and helps insulate the axon from the activity of other nearby axons

• Coating is called myelin sheath

• Without the coating, interference may occur (e.g. like when the hair dryer and TV are both on)

Axon Collaterals

• Small branches at the end of an axon.

• At the end of the collaterals are axon transmitters

• Terminal button is a small structure like a sac that stores + secretes a chemical called neurotransmitter

• The neurotransmitter is manufactured by the neuron & carries its message to other neurons or cells

Neural Pathways

• Info travels one direction: dendrites → soma → axon → axon terminals

• Axon terminals release neurotransmitters to carry message chemically to other neurons

• Neurons don't touch - tiny space between axon terminal and dendrite called synaptic gap

Primary Motor Cortex

• The region of the cerebral cortex, located in the frontal lobe

• Involved in the planning, control, and execution of voluntary movements

Primary Sensory Cortex (Somatosensory Cortex)

• Located at the front of the parietal lobe

• Receives and processes sensory information from the entire body

Brain Damage

• The result of damage to/the degradation of brain cells

• Classified as any damage that affects the normal functioning of the brain

• Most cases occur after birth

• Can be due to an acquired brain injury or a neurodegenerative disease

Wernike’s Area

• Located in the left hemisphere in the temporal lobe

• Important for language development & is responsible for speech comprehension/language

Broca’s Area

• Located in the left hemisphere in the frontal lobe

• Related to the coordination of speech production

Broca’s Area

• Expressive/non-fluent

• Damage to the Broca’s area, and often surrounding areas

• Have difficulty expressing themselves in words 

• Ability to comprehend speech is largely unaffected

Characteristics of Broca’s Aphasia

• Words are generated with considerate effort

• Non-fluent, broken speech, pauses between words

• Poorly articulated, lacks grammar & syntax

• Sentences consist largely of nouns

• Inability to recall names

• Difficulty writing

Wernicke’s Aphasia

• Receptive/fluent

• Damage to Wernicke’s area in the left temporal lobe

• Have difficulty understanding written and spoken language

• Have difficulty producing written and spoken language that makes sense to others

Characteristics of Wernicke’s Aphasia

• Speak fluently, freely, and rapidly but it does not make sense

• Has problems finding the right words, experience mispronunciations

• Difficulty understanding and producing written and spoken language