a social interaction in which one person (the hypnotist) suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur
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posthypnotic suggestion
a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors
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social influence theory of hypnosis
Hypnosis is a result of normal consciousness (perhaps under selective attention) and social influence
Hypnotic subjects may simply be imaginative actors playing a social role
An authoritative person in a legitimate context can induce people to perform unlikely acts
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Hilgard's divided consciousness theory of hypnosis
a split between different levels of consciousness - hypnosis has caused a split in awareness
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dissociation
a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others
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circadian rhythm
the biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle
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REM sleep
Rapid eye movement sleep, a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active.
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alpha waves
the relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state
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delta waves
the large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep
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hallucinations
false sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus
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NREM sleep
non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except for REM sleep
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suprachiasmatic nucleus
a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm
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pineal gland
produces melatonin
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melatonin
A hormone manufactured by the pineal gland that produces sleepiness.
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insomnia
recurring problems in falling or staying asleep
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narcolepsy
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks. The sufferer may lapse directly into REM sleep, often at inopportune times.
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sleep apnea
a sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings
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night terrors
a sleep disorder characterized by high arousal and an appearance of being terrified; unlike nightmares, night terrors occur during Stage 4 sleep, within two or three hours of falling asleep, and are seldom remembered
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Freud's wish fulfillment theory
Dreams provide a psychic safety value - expressing otherwise unacceptable feelings; contain manifest (remembered) content and a deeper layer of latent content - a hidden meaning
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manifest content
according to Freud, the remembered story line of a dream (as distinct from its latent, or hidden, content)
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latent content
according to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream (as distinct from its manifest content)
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information processing theory
dreams help us sort out the day's events and consolidate our memories
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physiological function theory
regular brain stimulation from REM sleep may help develop and preserve neural pathways
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neural activation theory
REM sleep triggers neural activity that evokes random visual memories, which our sleeping brain weaves into stories
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cognitive development theory,
dream content reflects dreamers' cognitive development- their knowledge and understanding
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REM rebound
the tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation (created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep)
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substance use disorder/drug dependence
Continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruptions and or physical risk
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psychoactive drug
a chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods
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tolerance/neuroadaptation
the diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger and larger doses before experiencing the drug's effect
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Addiction
compulsive drug craving and use, despite adverse consequences
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Withdrawal
the discomfort and distress that follow discontinuing the use of an addictive drug or behavior
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Depressants
drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions
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alcohol use disorder
(popularly known as alcoholism). Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use.
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expectancy effect
People's response to a substance on the basis of their beliefs about it, even if it contains no active ingredient. shows how cognitive as well as physiological factors are involved in drug reaction and dependence.
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barbiturates (tranquilizers)
drugs that depress the activity of the central nervous system, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment
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opiates
opium and its derivatives, such as morphine and heroin; they depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety
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stimulants
Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.
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amphetamines
drugs that stimulate neural activity, causing speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes
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Nicotine
a stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco
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Cocaine
A powerful and addictive stimulant, derived from the coca plant, producing temporary increased alertness
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Methamphetamine
a powerfully addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system, with speeded-up body functions and associated energy and mood changes; over time, appears to reduce baseline dopamine levels
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Ecstasy (MDMA)
a synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen. Produces euphoria and social intimacy, but with short-term health risks and longer-term harm to serotonin-producing neurons and to mood and cognition.
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Hallicinogens
Psychedelic (mind manifesting) drugs such as LSD that distorts perceptions and evoke sensory images
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LSD
a powerful hallucinogenic drug; also known as acid (lysergic acid diethylamide)
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near-death experience
an altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death (such as through cardiac arrest); often similar to drug-induced hallucinations
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THC
the major active ingredient in marijuana; triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations
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William James
stream of consciousness, with each moment flowing into the next
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Ernest Hilgard
famous for his hypnosis research & the theory "hidden observer". Believed hypnosis invovles not only social influences but also a special state of dissociation
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Sigmund Freud
proposed that dreams provide a psychic saftey value that discharges otherwise unacceptable feeling. He thought that most adult dreams could be traced back to erotic wishes.
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5 sleep Theories
Sleep Protects
Sleep helps us recuperate
Sleep is for making memories
Sleep also feeds creative thinking
Sleep may play a role in the growth process
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Sensation
the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment
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Perception
the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
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bottom-up processing
analysis that begins with the sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information
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top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations
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selective attention
the focusing of conscious awareness on a particular stimulus
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cocktail party effect
Ability to concentrate on one voice amongst a crowd
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inattention blindness
failing to see visible objects when our attention is directed elsewhere
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change blindness
failing to notice changes in the environment
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Transduction
conversion of one form of energy into another. In sensation, the transforming of stimulus energies, such as sights, sounds, and smells, into neural impulses our brains can interpret.
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Psychophysics
the study of relationships between the physical characteristics of stimuli, such as their intensity, and our psychological experience of them
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absolute threshold
the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
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signal detection theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.
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subliminal
below one's absolute threshold for conscious awareness
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priming
the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response
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difference threshold
the minimum difference between two stimuli required for detection 50 percent of the time
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Webster's Law
the principle that, to be perceived as different, two stimuli must differ by a constant minimum percentage (rather than a constant amount)
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sensory adaptation
diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation
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perceptual set
a mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another
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parapsychology
the study of paranormal phenomena, including ESP and psychokinesis
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extrasensory perception (ESP)
the controversial claim that perception can occur apart from sensory input; includes telepathy, clairvoyance, and precognition
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telepathy
Communication from one mind to another without speech, writing, or other sensory means
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clairvoyance
the power to see things that cannot be perceived by the senses, such as sensing that a friend's house is on fire
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precognition
perceiving future events, such as a political leader's death or a sporting event's outcome
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psychokinesis
ability to move objects with one's mind, "mind over matter"
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Wavelength
the distance from the peak of one light or sound wave to the peak of the next. Electromagnetic wavelengths vary from the short blips of cosmic rays to the long pulses of radio transmission
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hue
the dimension of color that is determined by the wavelength of light; what we know as the color names blue, green, and so forth
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Intensity
the amount of energy in a light or sound wave, which we perceive as brightness or loudness, as determined by the wave's amplitude
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pupil
the adjustable opening in the center of the eye through which light enters
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iris
a ring of muscle tissue that forms the colored portion of the eye around the pupil and controls the size of the pupil opening
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lens
the transparent structure behind the pupil that changes shape to help focus images on the retina
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retina
the light-sensitive inner surface of the eye, containing the receptor rods and cones plus layers of neurons that begin the processing of visual information
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accommodation
the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina
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rods
retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond
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cones
retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.
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optic nerve
the nerve that carries neural impulses from the eye to the brain
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blind spot
the point at which the optic nerve leaves the eye, creating a "blind" spot because no receptor cells are located there
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fovea
the central focal point in the retina, around which the eye's cones cluster
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feature detectors
nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement
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parellel processing
The processing of several aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. Contrasts with the step-by-step processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving.
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Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory
the theory that the retina contains three different color receptors—one most sensitive to red, one to green, one to blue—which, when stimulated in combination, can produce the perception of any color.
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opponent-process theory
the theory that opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green
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Gestalt Principles
an organized whole. Gestalt psychologists emphasized our tendency to integrate pieces of information into meaningful wholes.
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figure-ground
the organization of the visual field into objects (the figures) that stand out from their surroundings (the ground).
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grouping
the perceptual tendency to organize stimuli into coherent groups
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proximity
We group nearby figures together. We see not six separate lines, but three sets of two lines.
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continuity
the tendency to perceive things as simply as possible with a continuous pattern rather than with a complex, broken-up pattern
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Closure
we fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object
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similarity
the tendency to perceive things that look similar to each other as being part of the same group
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Connectedness
the effect of perceiving spots, lines, or areas as a single unit
Studied by 73 people
