Unit 2: Cognition (AP Psychology) (copy)

Perception

The process by which individuals interpret and organize sensory information to understand their environment.

Internal Factors

Factors within the individual that influence perception, such as psychological state, past experiences, and individual differences.

Psychological State

Emotions, motivations, and expectations that can alter how we perceive information.

Past Experiences

Previous encounters that shape how we interpret current stimuli, leading to biases in perception.

Individual Differences

Personal traits such as personality and cognitive abilities that dictate how a person perceives situations or stimuli.

Cultural Background

The cultural context that affects interpretations and reactions to various stimuli.

Social Influences

How the presence or expectations of others modify perceptions of an event or situation.

Physical Environment

Environmental aspects such as lighting, color, and noise level that shape perceptions.

Visual Perceptual Processes

Involves the interpretation and organization of visual stimuli to help individuals understand their environment.

Correct Interpretations

When individuals' psychological states and external conditions align positively with the stimuli.

Incorrect Interpretations

When emotional biases or cultural differences lead to misunderstandings of visual input.

Cognition

The mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding.

Information Processing Model

Outlines how information is processed in stages: Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval.

Encoding

Transforming sensory input into a form that can be stored, crucial for effective decision-making.

Storage

Maintaining information over time to ensure accessibility for future judgments.

Retrieval

Accessing stored information when needed to aid in resolving problems and making decisions.

Sensory Memory

Brief storage of sensory information that helps in quick evaluations.

Short-term Memory

Limited capacity for holding and manipulating information aids in immediate problem-solving.

Long-term Memory

Permanent storage of knowledge that informs decisions and judgments based on previous learning.

Working Memory

A crucial tool that allows temporary holding and manipulation of information for cognitive tasks.

Cognitive Biases

Systematic patterns of deviation from rational judgment that influence decision-making.

Confirmation Bias

A tendency to search for, interpret, and remember information that confirms existing preconceptions.

Functional Fixedness

Limits problem-solving by constraining individuals to think of objects only in their conventional roles.

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb used to make decisions, which can lead to errors.

Decay Theory

Suggests that memories fade over time if they are not accessed.

Interference Theory

Proposes that other information can disrupt the retrieval of memories.

Forgetting Curve

A graph depicting the decline of memory retention over time.

Semantic Memory

Involves processing the meaning of information, leading to deeper memory retention.

Visual Encoding

Involves encoding of images and visual sensory information.

Acoustic Encoding

Focuses on the sounds associated with stimuli.

Maintenance of Information

Holding information in memory for potential future retrieval.

Explicit Memory

Memory of facts and experiences that can be consciously recalled.

Implicit Memory

Involves skills and conditioned responses performed without conscious thought.

Neural Connections

Formed during encoding, strengthening pathways for future retrieval of information.

Retrieval Cues

Stimuli that help access stored information, enhancing retrieval success.

Emotional States

The influence of emotions on memory retrieval; certain emotions can trigger specific memories.

Influencing Factors of Retrieval

Factors such as cues, emotional states, and neural connections that impact retrieval.

Storage

The maintenance of information over time within memory structures.

Rehearsal

The repetition of information to enhance memory retention.

Mnemonics

Memory aids that enhance encoding and recall.

Schema

Mental frameworks that organize information.

Heuristic Decision Making

Processes that use mental shortcuts to reach conclusions or make judgments.

Working Memory Definition

A limited capacity system that temporarily holds and manipulates information for cognitive tasks.

Cognitive Processes

The processes involved in thinking, understanding, and remembering.

Memory Retrieval Process

The process of accessing encoded and stored information when needed.

Contextual Cues

Environmental or situational stimuli present during encoding that aid retrieval.

Memory Interference

When new information disrupts the recall of older memories.

Forgetting Mechanisms

Factors that cause memories to fade or become inaccessible.

Decision-Making Influences

Psychological theories that provide insight into how choices are made.

Memory Construction

The process of forming and organizing memories, which can be influenced by biases.

Organizational Techniques

Methods used to improve memory by categorizing and structuring information.

Effective Encoding Techniques

Strategies that enhance the ability to store and later retrieve information.

Long-term Memory Categories

Explicit (declarative) and implicit (non-declarative) memory types.

Transience

The tendency for memories to fade over time.

Selective Attention

Focusing on particular stimuli while ignoring others to enhance memory.

Context Effects

The influence of external settings and environments on memory recall.

Cognitive Load

The amount of mental effort being used in the working memory.

Memory Consolidation

The process by which memories are stabilized and stored in the brain.