Envirothon CI A K2: NPS in a Growing World and Your Role in It

Land Use

human use of land (economic, cultural - agriculture, residential, industrial, mining, recreation)

different uses in public vs. private lands

Land use changes

occur constantly; have specific/cumulative effects on air/water quality, watershed function, waste generation, wildlife habitat extent/quality, climate, and human health

EPA concerned about land use activities and their effects on environment/human health, especially land development and agricultural uses

connections b/w land use changes and spread of vector-borne infectious diseases (fragmentation of forest habitat separated by agricultural activities/developed lands —> edge effect —> interaction b/w pathogens, vectors, hosts)

sometimes land use changes may have positive effects if intentionally restoring habitat or reclaiming previous contaminated lands

effects of land development

creation of impervious surfaces (roads, parking lots, etc.)

• limit runoff filtering by soils —> more nonpoint source water pollution

• increase peak flow + water volume —> increase erosion potential, affect habitat/WQ

• increase stormwater runoff (w/ dirt, oils, nutrients, toxic compounds) —> more pollutants to water bodies (drinking/recreational waters)

• reduce groundwater aquifer recharge

point source discharge from industrial/municipal wastewater treatment facilities —> toxic compounds/increased temperatures in water

land development patterns, especially suburbanization (dispersed growth)

• vehicle use —> increased air pollution —> may exacerbate human health problems (asthma)

• trees/shurbs replaced by pavement/buildings/etc. —> more heat absorbed —> heat islands (domes of warmer air over urban/suburban areas —> affect climate and AQ

effects of agricultural use

affect quality of water/watersheds:

• type of crops planted + tillage + irrigation —> limit water availability for other uses

• livestock grazing in riparian zones —> reduce stream bank vegetation —> increase water temp, sedimentation, nutrient levels

• pesticide/fertilizer/manure runoff —> degrade water quality

loss of native habitats, increased wind erosion/dust —> human exposure to particulate matter/chemicals

acceleration of spread of invasive species

• overgrazing, land conversion, fertilization, agricultural chemicals —> enhance invasive plant growth —> alter fish/wildlife habitat, decrease biodiversity, human/livestock health risk

• intro of invasive species on agricultural lands —> reduce WQ and water availability for native fish/wildlife

ROE (Report on the Environment) indicators

ROE has two indicators with information about land use trends: 1. Land Use and Urbanization 2. Population Change

limited indicators because:

• lack of data:

  • no indicators to assess effects of trends in land use on human health (effects not shown/quantified nationally) —> little knowledge on national trends on human health impacts

  • variety of state/local laws/regulations/practices —> hard to organize land use data (most records kept locally) —> hard to track/monitor land use changes or coordinate land use across jurisdictions

• varying approaches to data classification/management:

  • data collected by many different agencies (different purposes for managing land) —> estimates of extent of land uses differ across sources (different classifications, measurement approaches, methodologies for analysis/interpretation, sampling time frames) —> hard to integrate data over time/nationally

• difficulty delineating land use

  • land use = laws + policies + management decisions —> hard to infer from ground examinations —> need to analyze zoning maps/property records at local level to understand land use

—> challenges/limitations in tracking trends in land use

urban areas effect on water quality

increased runoff

• porous/varied terrains of natural landscapes (forests, wetlands, grasslands) trap rainwater/snowmelt —> allow slow infiltration and filtration

• impervious/nonporous surfaces (roads, parking lots, rooftops) prevent infiltration into ground —> most rainfall/snowmelt stay above surface —> runs off rapidly in large amounts (> 5x runoff of woodland area of same size)

• storm sewer systems concentrate runoff into smooth/straight conduits —> increased speed and erosional power —> when runoff empties into stream, volume and power blast out stream banks —> vegetation damage, wiped out aquatic habitats

• carry sediment loads (construction sites, eroded streambanks) + high water temps —> harm aquatic life

• loss of infiltration —> groundwater changes (lower stream flows during dry weather, flooding during/after wet weather) —> affects survival of fish/aquatic life

increased pollutant loads

• increases variety/amount of pollutants carried into streams/rivers/lakes

• pollutants: sediment, motor vehicle residue (oil/grease/toxic chemicals), pesticides/nutrients, pet waste/failed septic systems (viruses/bacteria/nutrients), road salts, heavy metals (roof shingles, motor vehicles, etc.), thermal pollution from low albedo impervious surfaces

• harm fish/wildlife populations, kill native vegetation, contaminate drinking water supplies, make recreational areas unsafe/unpleasant

managing urban runoff

homeowners:

• decrease polluted runoff by developing alternatives to traditionally impervious surfaces —> porous pavement for driveways/sidewalks; native vegetation/mulch for grass lawns

• sparingly use fertilizers, sweep > hose down driveways/sidewalks/roads, put yard waste in compost pile > disposing, learn Integrated Pest Management (IPM) to reduce harmful pesticide dependency

• pick up after pets, use/store/dispose chemicals properly, check cars for leaks, recycle car fluids when changed, use car wash facilities w/o runoff

• professionally inspect/pump septic systems every 3-5 years, practice water conservation to extend system lifespan

new developments:

• developers/city planners should control runoff volume from new developments through low impact development (LID), structural control, and pollution prevention strategies

  • LID: conserving natural areas (riparian buffers, infiltrable soils), reduce development impacts, reduce site runoff rates (maximze surface roughness, infiltration opportunities, flow paths)

existing developments:

• more costly than controlling runoff from new developments

• target hot spots of runoff pollution/use methods w/ multiple benefits (high-efficiency street sweeping —> aesthetics, road safety, WQ)

• urban planners/etc.: identify + implement pollution prevention strategies, examine source control opportunities

  • Priority pollutant reduction opportunities —> protect natural areas that control runoff —> ecological restoration/retrofit activities to clean up degraded water bodies

• local governments lead in public education —> public signage, storm drain marketing, pollution prevention outreach campaigns, paternerships w/ citizen groups/businesses

• citizens can prioritize clean-up strategies, volunteer/involve in restoration efforts, mark storm drains with don’t dump messages

agriculture effects on water quality

agricultural NPS pollution = leading source of WQ impacts; second largest source of wetland impairments; major contributor to estuary/groundwater contamination

caused by poorly located/managed animal feeding operations; overgrazing; plowing too often/at wrong time; improper/excessive/poorly timed pesticide/fertilizer/irrigation water application

pollutants: sediment, nutrients, pathogens, pesticides, metals, salts

can minimize impacts on water through management practices adapted to local conditions (can also increase productivity and save farmers/ranchers money long-term)

government programs to help design/pay for management approaches

• Clean Water Act section 319

• USDA/state funded programs —> cost-share, technical assistance, economic incentives to implement NPS pollution management practices

  • regional support networks by local organizations/individuals —> adopt technologies/practices

agriculture pollutant - sedimentation

soil washed off fields carried by rain water —> nearby lakes/streams

sediment clouds water (turbidity) —> reduce amount of sunlight reaching aquatic plants, clog gills of fih, smother fih larvae

pollutants (fertilizers, pesticides, heavy metals) often attached to soil particles and enter water bodies —> algal blooms, deplete oxygen —> deadly to aquatic life

farmers can use management practices that control volume & flow rate of runoff water, keep soil in place, and reduce soil transport —> reduce erosion/sedimentation by 20-90%

agriculture pollutant - nutrients

nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen, potassium, etc.) applied through chemical fertilizers, manure, sludge, legume crop residues

nutrients applied excessively or before rain —> wash into aquatic ecosystems —> algal blooms (ruin recreational activities, drinking water quality, deplete oxygen —> kill fish)

high nitrate concentrations in drinking water —> methemoglobinemia (fatal disease in infants, “blue baby syndrome”)

farmers can implement management plans that help maintain high yields and save money on fertilizers

agriculture pollutant - animal feeding operations

confining animals in small areas —> efficiency in feeding/maintaining livestock; major source of animal waste (238,000 working farms/ranches in US —> 500 million tons of manure/yr)

runoff from poorly managed facilities carry pathogens (bacteria, viruses), nutrients, oxygen-demanding organics/solids —> contaminate shellfishing areas, other WQ problems

groundwater contaminated by waste seepage

can limit discharges by storing/managing wastewater and runoff w/ waste management systems

agriculture pollutant - livestock grazing

overgrazing —> exposes soils, increases erosion, encourages undesirable plant growth, destroys fish habitat, destroys streambanks/floodplain vegetation (needed for habitat/WQ filtration)

can adjust grazing intensity, keep livestock out of sensitive areas, provide alternate water/shade sources, promote revegetation of ranges/pastures/riparian zones

agriculture pollutant - irrigation

irrigation water applied to supplement natural precipitation/protect crops against freezing/wilting

can cause WQ problems if inefficient —> concentration of salts through evaporation of irrigation water in arid areas; excessive irrigation —> erosion, transport nutrients/pesticides/heavy metals, decrease natural water flow into streams/rivers, buildup of selenium (toxic metal that harms waterfowl reproduction)

can improve water use efficiency (measure actual crop needs, apply only required amount, convert to higher efficiency equipment)

agriculture pollutant - pesticides

insecticides, herbicides, fungicides —> kill agricultural pests —> chemicals can enter/contaminate water through direct application, runoff, atmospheric deposition

can poison fish/wildlife, contaminate food sources, destroy habitat used by animals

farmers should use Integrated Pest Management (IPM) techniques based on soil, climate, pest history, crop conditions —> encourage natural barriers, limit pesticide use, manage necessary applications to minimize pesticide movement

runoff pollutants from urban vs. agricultural sources

Chloride (Cl-) pollution almost always has urban origin, but also present in agricultural waters via fertilizer

Nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) origins are hard to determine, especially in mixed land use watersheds

• urban “flashy” hydrology —> erosional P loss —> high P exports

• P enrichment of agricultural soils (long-term fertilizer/manure inputs) —> runoff causes high P runoff into streams (much of P present in particulate form)

• N in agricultural runoff dominated by dissolved inorganic NO_3^-N —> usually from fertilized cropland, also high in urban runoff

urban expansion —> more pressure on remaining agricultural land to produce more from less

agricultural management practices changes amounts/forms of P/N loss —> some management practices might unintentionally enhance los of P/N (no mechanical mixing —> surface-enriched nutrients leach from soils via year-round micropores —> bypass soil matrix, enter water systems)

modeling can help view patterns, such as self-organizing maps (SOM; machine/deep leaning)

pollution load estimation tool (PLET)

uses simple algorithms to calculate nutrient/sediment loads from different land uses; calculate load reductions from BMP implementation.

pollutant load reduction calculator

from NY state dept. of environmental conservation; to ensure consistency when estimating potential load reductions for BMPs

uses accepted efficiencies for N/P for common BMPs —> does not account for site-specific factors —> actual efficiency might differ from calculated efficiency

model my watershed

address nitrogen/stormwater reduction

1. multi-year model: average annual loads of N/P/sediment; can use infiltration/bioretention practice based on total acres of implementation in watershed area

2. multi-year model worksheet: more complicated, but more control of details of land use/BMP functions

3. site storm model: hybrid of SLAMM, TR 55, STEPL models —> used for smaller, more developed areas; outline specific BMP areas (rain gardens, porous paving, green roof, etc.) —> allows modeling of land cover changes, impact of storm events

US Forest Service i-Tree MyTree calculator

calculate pollution prevention/reduction from tree planting/existing trees

New England Stormwater Retrofit Manual

by University of New Hampshire Stormwater Center; describes US EPA Stormwater Control Measures (SCMs) Performance Curves as a tool to quantify WQ benefit —> aid in selection process/justify retrofit

Pollutant Removal Credits for Buffer Restoration in MS4 Permits

by University of New Hampshire Stormwater Center; buffers good for protecting WQ —> no guidance on how to quantify WQ benefits and compare to other BMPs —> developed consensus-based recommendations for pollutant load reduction performance curves for restored/constructed buffers

Green Values Stormwater Calculator

developed by Center for Neighborhood Technology w/ US EPA Office of Wetlands, Oceans, Watersheds; provides quick way to compare pre- and post-development conditions using conventional/green infrastructure improvements

aligns with methodology used for regulatory requirements

displays construction costs, maintenance costs, other environmental benefits

evaluate what combination of BMPs meet volume capacity capture goal cost effectively

National Stormwater Management Calculator

by EPA; estimates annual amount of rainwater/frequency of runoff from specific site; can model LID practices to reduce runoff and show construction/maintenance cost estimates

Green Infrastructure Flexible Model (GIFMod)

can evaluate performance of urban stormwater/agricultural green infrastructure practices by building conceptual models of green infra practices to predict hydraulic/WQ performance under given weather scenarios

Visualizing Ecosystems for Land Management Assessment (VELMA) Model

can quantify effectiveness of natural/engineered green infrastructure management practices (riparian buffers, cover crops, constructed wetlands, etc.) for reducing NPS of nutrients/contaminants in streams/estuaries/groundwater

BMP

individual practices that serve specific functions

can be structural (fence, buffer strip) or nonstructural (street sweeping)

designed to reduce pollutants generated/delivered to water body by:

• source reduction (minimizing pollutants available)

• slowing transport of pollutants (reduce water transported/retain pollutants)

• remediating/intercepting pollutants before/after being delivered to water by chemical/biological transformation

watershed

geographic area in which all water running off the land drains to a given stream, lake, wetland, or any other waterbody

most effective + easiest to work in smallest watershed unit possible to address WQ problems

difficult to use watersheds to manage WQ because political boundaries do not follow watershed boundaries

NPS pollution - hydrologic modification

activities that affect natural pathways of surface water (stream channel modifications, channelization, dam construction, stream bank/shoreline erosion, development near water bodies) —> removes natural flood control areas (oxbows, adjacent wetlands, riparian zones) —> changes to ecological functions of surrounding lands (damage habitats, erosion, reduction of ability to filter pollutants)

NPS pollution - new development

greater use of chemicals (fertilizer/pesticides/oil/detergents)

greater potential for erosion (disturbance, use of site)

increase in impervious cover —> more runoff

• WQ declines sharply even with 10% increase of impervious surfaces

reduced vegetated areas —> less buffering —> increased runoff, higher pollution levels

change movement of water/hydrologic functions of watershed:

• changes in water flow rate

• reduced amount of recharge/infiltration

• increased volume of water during storms

• lowered water table

• reduced base flow

• increased water temperatures (reduced shading of water)

• reduced accumulation of natural biomass in water

can reduce with design and location of new developments

BMP - conservation design

benefits:

• minimizes amount of land disturbed for development (maintains significant ecological areas in natural state)

• reduces amount of impervious surfaces created

• energy/water efficiency maximized

• increases infiltration of water into ground (maintains groundwater supplies)

• protects wildlife habitat (maintain undisturbed land)

• reduce air pollution (encourage compact development —> walking biking > vehicle use) —> also more exercise —> reduce medical costs

principles:

• narrower/shorter streets/driveways

• sidewalks on one side of street only

• smaller lots, narrower setbacks/frontages —> reduce land disturbed by development

• reduce parking area sizes, use permeable surfaces

• reduce areas maintained as lawn; use drought-tolerant grass species —> reduce watering

• disconnect impervious surfaces (e.g. driveways slope towards vegetated areas vs. street)

• maintain vegetated buffers; don’t mow to edge of water

• open, grassed swales vs. curb and gutter systems

• use natural resource information when designing

• integrate small-scale BMPs/landscape features

• require enhanced performance septic tanks/regular inspections if not served by sewer

• encourage onsite collection/infiltration of rainfall/runoff (rain barrels/cisterns —> roof runoff; rain gardens)

BMP - low impact development (LID) design

alternative stormwater management approach; more opportunities for stormwater to infiltrate, maintain natural watershed hydrology, and limit impacts on natural habitat

focus on:

• site design techniques that reduce runoff and maintain existing hydrologic features

• site-level stormwater controls

fundamental LID site planning concepts:

• using hydrology as basis for new development designs

  • identify/protect areas important to natural hydrology of site (streams, buffers, floodplains, wetlands, steep slopes, high-permeability soils, woodland conservation zones)

  • development located in remaining areas (less sensitive/lower value in hydrologic functions)

  • design to: minimize clearing/grading; minimize/disconnect impervious surfaces; minimize quantity/velocity of surface runoff; provide on-site runoff management; maintain existing topography/drainage pattern (disperse flow paths)

  • use open, vegetated drainage systems when possible (maximize overland sheet flow - better than concentrated channel flow; use wider/rougher/longer flow paths; include pockets of vegetation in flow path)

• micromanagement for stormwater control

  • use small-scale integrated managemnet practices (IMPs) throughout the site —> control runoff at source

  • bioretention facilities, dry wells, filter/buffer strips, grassed swales, bioretention swales, wet swales, rain barrels, cisterns, infiltration trenches

  • require monitoring/periodic upkeep (trash removal, maintenance of vegetation)

• controlling stormwater at source

• using simplistic, nonstructural control methods when possible

• creating multi-functional landscape/infrastructure

BMP - new developments location

locate close to existing developed areas

• can connect to sewer system —> reduce NPS pollution from septic systems

• less pipe needed to connect to sewer system —> less chance of leakage, lower cost

• shorten distance to services/facilities/activities —> reduce vehicle travel —> reduce local air pollution

locate close to existing roadways

• reduce amount of impervious surfaces created by development

locate away from surface waters

• increased opportunities for treatment of runoff

NPS pollution - previously-developed areas

higher amounts of impervious surfaces

existing stormwater drainage systems (older systems discharge directly to streams/rivers/etc.)

can reduce by preventing pollutants from entering storm waters and install structural BMPs to reduce/collect/treat stormwater (opportunities during redevelopment/renovation)

BMP - general (previously-developed areas)

use vegetation extensively —> filter runoff before entering water

divert runoff around sites with pollutants (gas stations)

inspect periodically to ensure potential pollutants are not left in areas where runoff could transport it to waterbodies

keep impervious surfaces clean of debris —> street sweeping

clean catch basins/other flow control devices regularly —> prevent backup/overflow of sediments/pollutants

BMP - bioretention area

manage/treat stormwater runoff using conditioned planting soil bed + planting material to filter runoff stored in a shallow depression

can include:

• pretreatment filter strip of grass in inlet channel

• shallow surface water ponding area

• bioretention planting area

• soil zone

• underdrain system

• overflow outlet structure

ex. vegetated islands in parking lots recessed vs. raised

BMP - grassed swale

engineered grass channel to transport stormwater

• dry swales facilitate quality/quantity control by allowing infiltration

• wet swales use retention time/natural growth of water-tolerant vegetation to regulate flow/quality of stormwater before discharge

BMP - infiltration trench

excavated trench that is backfilled with stone —> subsurface basin

water slowly infiltrated into soil (over several days)

most effective when combined with pretreatment (filter strip, etc.) to reduce sediment reaching trenchBMP

BMP - infiltration basin/pond

grassed, flat-bottomed basin preceded by sediment forebay/riprap apron to slow flow of water/trap sediment

water slowly infiltrated into soil (over several days)

BMP - dry well

small excavated pit backfilled with aggregate (pea gravel, stone)

used to infiltrate runoff from building rooftops/in modified catch basins

inflow = direct surface runoff

BMP - stormwater treatment chamber

underground, divided chamber used to remove sediment, oil, debris from stormwater

typically used together with stormwater retention/infiltration BMP

National POllutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) Stormwater Phase II rule

requires operators of small municipal separate storm sewer systems (MS4s), operators of municipally owned industrial activities, and operators of small construction sites (> 1 ac) to implement programs/practices to control polluted stormwater runoff

6 minimum control measures must be implemented within 5 years of receiving Phase II permit —> must submit annual report to EPA summarizing progress toward specific measurable goals in each category

1. public outreach and education

2. public participation and involvement

3. illicit discharge detection and elimination

4. construction site runoff control

5. post-construction runoff control

6. pollution prevention and good housekeeping

reducing NPS pollution in households - septic systems

septic system can become clogged/overflow on ground/cause wastewater to back up into house —> expensive to replace, contaminates nearby ground/surface waters/wells

• know location of septic tank/leaching area —> mark on ground

• have tank inspected yearly

• keep bulky items out of system to prevent clogging leaching system

• keep toxic materials out of system to prevent death of necessary bacteria

• repair leaking fixtures promptly

• use water-reducing fixtures to reduce amount of water entering system

• keep food waste/grease from entering system

• keep deep-rooted trees/bushes away from leach field

• keep vehicles/livestock/heavy foot traffic away from leach field to avoid compression/breaking pipes

• minimize detergent/bleach/chlorine/acid product use, use alternative cleaning products (baking soda, borax) to prevent death of necessary bacteria

reducing NPS pollution in households - chemical use, storage, and disposal

products like cleaners, paint thinner, spot remover, oven cleaner, furniture polish, drain opener, pool chemicals, hair spray, etc. can contaminate wells/streams/septic systems if used improperly

• use nontoxic alternatives when possible

• read label carefully before using/disposing product

• only buy/use quantity needed/recommended

• store and label wastes safely, bring to local waste collection

  • don’t pour chemicals on the ground/down the drain/discard in trash/bury/burn

reducing NPS pollution in households - lawn/garden activities

lawn chemicals, fertilizers, silt, sand can contribute to NPS pollution

• test soil to know what is actually needed before applying fertilizer/lime

• select slow-release fertilizer to avoid excess nutrient runoff

• plant natural, native plant species instead of non-native plants —> require less water, herbicides, fertilizers, trimming

• reduce size of lawn by planting low-maintenance ground covers, trees, flowers, shrubs —> help water infiltrate into ground, prevent soil erosion

• use 6-12 inches of topsoil —> encourage deep root growth

• maintain/plant natural vegetation buffer (>= 100 feet wide) between lawn and water body to hold soil in place, absorb pollution, provide wildlife habitat

• compost, use it on gardens/lawns/around trees/bushes —> reduce fertilizer/water need

• refrain pesticide use near surface water and read labels carefully

reducing NPS pollution in households - impervious surfaces

runoff washes across impervious surfaces and picks up loose soil, pet wastes, fertilizers, pesticides, oil, soaps, etc. and deposits into water bodies

• direct water to pervious surfaces to filter contaminants and recharge groundwater supplies

  • roof downspouts away from driveway/storm drainage system into gravel swale/grassed area

  • collect roof runoff in rain barrel

• limit amount of impervious surfaces on property

• replace with natural ground cover/material that allows some water to seep into ground (gravel, brick, stepping stone, wood chips, etc.)

• maintain/restore natural vegetated areas as buffers along water bodies

• sweep driveways/walkways instead of hosing

reducing NPS pollution in households - pets

pet waste can be a source of bacteria/nutrients in water and can contaminate drinking/swimming water with pathogens

• pick up pet waste, flush down toilet/bury in yard/put in trash/install underground pet waste digester (small septic tank)

  • don’t put pet waste into storm drains

reducing NPS pollution in households - air pollution - acid deposition

rain/snow can deposit acids/acidifying compounds to Earth’s surface which moves through soil, vegetation, and surface waters

forms when emissions of sulfur dioxide/nitrogen oxides (primarily from power plants/motor vehicles/burning fossil fuels) react with substances in atmosphere to form acidic compounds

causes increased mortality for sensitive species, decreased visibility, stunted forest growth

nitrogen-saturated soils cannot buffer acid rain —> increased by nitrogen fertilizers, nitrogen-fixing crops, fossil fuels

• reduce use of electricity

• drive car less

• maintain car’s pollution control equipment, keep tires properly inflated, keep engine tuned

• put energy efficiency at top priority and look for Energy Star label when buying new appliances

• ask for Granite State Clean Car when buying new vehicle (meets lower emission standards + better fuel economy)

• contact electric utility to see what it is doing to reduce emissions

NPS pollution - site excavation and road construction

causes erosion and sedimentation from earth moving —> long term impacts on WQ

• habitat loss for fish/invertebrtes

• filling of wetlands, smothering of vegetation, plugging of culverts/ditches

• reduced recreational potential

• algal blooms/eutrophication in lakes from nutrients/chemicals carried by runoff

road building process causes most erosion problems

• drainage ditches/channels built along roads to carry stormwater erode easily before stabilized

• site excavation/development makes soil/attached chemicals more available —> polluted lakes/streams

• bare soil particles dislodged by rainfall —> transported down slope to water bodies

  • construction sites use chemicals (pesticides, fertilizers, petroleum products, construction chemcials)

BMPs for marinas

• use only phosphate-free detergents, establish wash area over infiltration trench/vegetated swale

• perform periodic engine maintenance out of water

• scrape, sand, sandblast, paint boats away from the open where dust, paint chips, paint spray can be blown into water; use appropriate containment devices

• install containment booms at fueling stations; weekly inspections to ensure good condition of facilities

• divert clean runoff/install infiltrating catch basins around boat launches to prevent pollutants from washing down ramp into lakes

• provide public restrooms/pump out facilities to eliminate potential discharge of wastewater into water bodies

reducing NPS pollution in agricultural lands and golf courses - sedimentation

runoff from bare fields can cause erosion and sedimentation of water bodies, especially with excessive irrigation on managed turf

suspended soil particles reduce sunlight available to aquatic plants, clog fish/shellfish/aquatic insect gills, diminish habitat

introduce pollutants attached to soil particles

• minimize tillage and extensive earth-moving

• plant cover crop and/or keep crop residue on soil after harvest

• plant vegetative filter strips along surface waters and between fields/fairways

• protect soil with rotational grazing

• rotate crops that provide limited ground cover with those that provide generous ground cover

• plant crops along contour lines when possible

• construct/stabilize diversions to control runoff across cropland/gully erosion

• reduce erosion/sedimentation by barring access of livestock on bare streambanks

reducing NPS pollution in agricultural lands and golf courses - nutrients

runoff from fertilized fields/golf courses and manure causes algal blooms and bacteria contamination

increase productivity of aquatic plants that eventually die/decay —> bacteria decomposing organic matter deplete oxygen supply in water —> cause unpleasant odors for recreational users

• monitor level of nutrients in soil by regular soil testing

• divert/collect/store runoff water from buildings/yards

• install vegetative filter along surface waters/feedlots/edges of fields

• avoid spreading manure/fertilizer during winter

• incorporate manure into soil as soon as possible after spreading

• prevent/control livestock access to waterbodies; implement pasture pumps/watering systems next to heavy use areas/feed bunks

• diversify crop rotations; plant cover crops after harvesting that use residual nutrients

• determine manure application rates/timing according to nutrient needs

• set realistic yield goals

reducing NPS pollution in agricultural lands and golf courses - pesticides

degrade water resources by poisoning people/wildlife through direct exposure/drinking water

• apply pesticides only when needed

• use insect-resistant crop or turf varieties

• spot-treat insect infestations when possible

• conserve beneficial insects

• select least-toxic pesticides, use organic pesticides

• observe setback zones

• store/handle/dispose of chemicals safely according to regulations

• manage crops to compete aggressively with weeds

• control weeds with cover crops

• use crop rotation and plant diversity to control insects

• plant pest-repelling plants next to crop plants

water footprint

volume of water consumed, evaporated, and polluted; increasing (mostly due to increased virtual water use) due to more people consuming water-intensive goods —> stress on water resources —> concern & conflict in arid parts of world

water footprints reveal water use patterns on all levels —> reveal water used/contaminated in all processes in manufacturing/producing goods —> frame of reference to help people be more efficient/sustainable with water use

virtual water: “hidden” water use for producing food, energy, and consumer products

blue water footprint: amount of surface water and groundwater required (evaporated or used directly) to produce an item

green water footprint: amount of rainwater required (evaporated or used directly) to make an item

grey water footprint: amount of freshwater required to dilute wastewater generated in manufacturing in order to maintain water quality