Remaining Psych Chapters

Behaviorism

School of psychology (Watson, Skinner) focusing on observable behavior and how it is learned through environmental conditioning, not thoughts or feelings.

Stimulus

Any event or object in the environment that triggers a response.

Response

The observable behavior produced by a stimulus.

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience, not maturation or temporary states.

Associative Learning

Learning that two events occur together or that behavior leads to consequences.

Classical Conditioning

Learning by associating two stimuli so that a neutral stimulus comes to trigger a response.

Operant Conditioning

Learning by associating behavior with its consequences (reinforcement or punishment).

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without learning.

Unconditioned Response (UR)

The unlearned, automatic response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after pairing with the US, triggers a learned response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

Higher-Order Conditioning

Conditioning where a neutral stimulus becomes a CS by being paired with an existing CS rather than the original US.

Stimulus Generalization

Responding similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus.

Stimulus Discrimination

Ability to distinguish between the conditioned stimulus and similar stimuli.

Extinction (Classical Conditioning)

Weakening of a conditioned response when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US.

Spontaneous Recovery

Reappearance of a conditioned response after extinction following a rest period.

Reinforcement

Any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior.

Positive Reinforcement

Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.

Punishment

Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

Positive Punishment

Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Primary Reinforcer

A naturally rewarding stimulus that satisfies biological needs.

Secondary Reinforcer

A stimulus that gains reinforcing power through association with primary reinforcers.

Extinction (Operant Conditioning)

Decrease of a behavior when reinforcement is no longer provided.

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs.

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior only some of the time, making it more resistant to extinction.

Shaping

Reinforcing successive approximations toward a desired behavior.

Successive Approximations

Small steps rewarded during shaping that lead to the final behavior.

Overjustification Effect

Reduction in intrinsic motivation due to excessive extrinsic rewards.

Intrinsic Motivation

Desire to perform a behavior for its own enjoyment or interest.

Extrinsic Motivation

Desire to perform a behavior due to external rewards or pressures.

Observational Learning

Learning by watching and imitating others.

Modeling

The process of observing and imitating behavior.

Latent Learning

Learning that occurs without reinforcement and is demonstrated later when motivation exists.

Cognition

Mental processes such as thinking, memory, expectations, and problem solving.

Encoding

The process of getting information into memory.

Storage

The retention of information over time in memory.

Retrieval

The process of accessing stored information.

Sensory Memory

Very brief storage of sensory information.

Iconic Memory

Visual sensory memory lasting less than one second.

Echoic Memory

Auditory sensory memory lasting a few seconds.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Limited-capacity memory system holding information briefly.

Working Memory

Active processing and manipulation of information held in STM.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

Relatively permanent and unlimited memory storage.

Explicit (Declarative) Memory

Conscious memories of facts and events.

Semantic Memory

Memory for facts, concepts, and general knowledge.

Episodic Memory

Memory for personal experiences and events.

Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory

Memory that affects behavior without conscious awareness.

Procedural Memory

Memory for skills and habits.

Priming

Unconscious activation of associations that influences response to stimuli.

Emotional Conditioning

Learned emotional responses associated with stimuli.

Amygdala

Brain structure involved in emotional processing and emotional memory.

Hippocampus

Brain structure critical for forming new explicit memories.

Cerebellum

Brain region involved in motor learning and classical conditioning.

Prefrontal Cortex

Brain area responsible for working memory, planning, and retrieval strategies.

Recall

Retrieving information without cues.

Recognition

Identifying information when it is presented.

Misinformation Effect

Distortion of memory caused by misleading information after an event.

Source Misattribution

Confusing the origin of a memory.

Flashbulb Memory

Vivid memory of an emotionally significant event that may still be inaccurate.

Memory Decay

Gradual fading of memories over time when not used.

Proactive Interference

Old information interfering with new learning.

Retroactive Interference

New information interfering with old memories.

Deep Processing

Encoding based on meaning and understanding, leading to better memory.

Shallow Processing

Encoding based on surface features, leading to weak memory.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repetition to keep information in short-term memory.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Connecting new information to existing knowledge for long-term retention.

Developmental Psychology

Study of physical, cognitive, and psychosocial development across the lifespan.

Continuous Development

Gradual, ongoing development without distinct stages.

Discontinuous Development

Development occurring in distinct stages.

Nature vs Nurture

Debate about the relative influence of genetics and environment.

Teratogens

Harmful substances that can damage prenatal development.

Rooting Reflex

Newborn reflex of turning toward touch on the cheek.

Sucking Reflex

Newborn reflex of sucking when the mouth is stimulated.

Moro Reflex

Infant startle response involving flinging arms outward.

Attachment

Strong emotional bond between infant and caregiver.

Contact Comfort

Preference for physical comfort over nourishment in attachment.

Separation Anxiety

Distress when a caregiver leaves.

Strange Situation

Laboratory procedure for assessing attachment styles.

Secure Attachment

Attachment marked by trust and comfort with caregiver.

Avoidant Attachment

Attachment marked by avoidance of caregiver.

Resistant Attachment

Attachment marked by anxiety and difficulty being soothed.

Disorganized Attachment

Attachment marked by confused or contradictory behaviors.

Authoritative Parenting

High warmth and high control parenting style linked to best outcomes.

Authoritarian Parenting

Low warmth and high control parenting style.

Permissive Parenting

High warmth and low control parenting style.

Uninvolved Parenting

Low warmth and low control parenting style.

Temperament

Biologically based emotional and behavioral tendencies.

Assimilation

Fitting new information into existing schemas.

Accommodation

Modifying schemas to fit new information.

Sensorimotor Stage

Piaget stage (birth

Object Permanence

Understanding that objects exist when out of sight.

Preoperational Stage

Piaget stage (2

Egocentrism

Difficulty seeing another’s perspective.

Concrete Operational Stage

Piaget stage (7

Formal Operational Stage

Piaget stage (12+) with abstract and hypothetical thinking.

Pre-Conventional Morality

Kohlberg level based on punishment and reward.

Conventional Morality

Kohlberg level based on social rules and approval.

Post-Conventional Morality

Kohlberg level based on ethical principles.