2.3-2.8

explicit memory

retention of facts and experiences that we can consciously know and "declare." (Also called declarative memory.)

episodic memory

explicit memory of personally experienced events; one of our two conscious memory systems.

semantic memory

explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; one of our two conscious memory systems.

implicit memory

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings.

procedural memory

a type of long-term memory for automatic skills and actions, such as riding a bike or typing, that are performed without conscious awareness.

prospective memory

remembering to perform an intended action in the future, such as remembering to take medicine or send a message later.

long-term potentiation

an increase in a nerve cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory.

working memory model

a model of short-term memory proposed by Baddeley and Hitch, suggesting memory is an active system that temporarily stores and manipulates information through components like the phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad, and central executive.

primary memory system

the immediate, conscious memory system responsible for holding a small amount of information for brief periods; similar to short-term or working memory.

central executive

a memory component that coordinates the activities of the phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad.

phonological loop

a memory component that briefly holds auditory information.

visuospatial sketchpad

a memory component that briefly holds information about objects' appearance and location in space.

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless archive of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences.

multi-store model

atkinson and Shiffrin's model describing memory as three stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory, through which information flows sequentially.

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system.

ionic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds.

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of familiar or well-learned information, such as sounds, smells, and word meanings.

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time.

levels of processing model

Craik and Lockhart's theory that memory retention depends on the depth of processing: deeper (semantic) processing leads to better recall than shallow (structural or phonemic) processing.

shallow encoding

encoding on a basic level, based on the structure or appearance of words.

deep encoding

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words; tends to yield the best retention.

structural processing

encoding based on the physical appearance of words

phonemic processing

encoding based on how a word sounds.

semantic processing

encoding based on the meaning of the information.

encoding

the process of getting information into the memory system — for example, by extracting meaning.

mnemonic devices

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

method of loci

a mnemonic strategy that associates items to be remembered with specific physical locations or landmarks.

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically.

categories (as they pertain to grouping)

mental groupings of similar objects, events, or ideas that simplify and organize information in memory.

hierarchies (as they pertain to grouping)

organizing related concepts into levels from broad to specific to aid efficient information storage and retrieval.

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice.

memory consolidation

the neural storage of a long-term memory.

massed practice

cramming; studying information in one long session, producing short-term learning but poor long-term retention.

distributed practice

spacing study sessions over time, which yields better long-term memory retention.

serial position effect

the tendency to recall the first and last items in a list better than those in the middle.

primacy effect

enhanced recall for items at the beginning of a list, due to more rehearsal and transfer to long-term memory.

recency effect

enhanced recall for items at the end of a list, still in short-term memory.

short-term memory

briefly activated memory of a few items (such as digits of a phone number while calling) that is later stored or forgotten.

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory; conscious, active processing of both (1) incoming sensory information, and (2) information retrieved from long-term memory.

maintenance rehearsal

repeating information over and over to maintain it in short-term memory.

elaborative rehearsal

actively linking new information to existing knowledge or meaning to transfer it into long-term memory.

memory retention

the continued possession or recall of learned information over time.

autobiographical memory

memory for events and experiences from one's own life, blending episodic and semantic memory.

retrograde amnesia

loss of memories formed before a trauma or injury.

anterograde amnesia

inability to form new memories after a trauma or damage to the hippocampus.

Alzheimer's disease

a progressive neurodegenerative disorder causing memory loss, cognitive decline, and personality changes, associated with loss of acetylcholine and buildup of amyloid plaques.

infantile amnesia

the inability to consciously recall memories from the first few years of life, likely due to the immaturity of the hippocampus and language systems.

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage.

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test.

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person identifies items previously learned, as on a multiple-choice test.

retrieval cues

stimuli that assist in recalling stored information.

context-dependent memory

improved recall when the external environment during retrieval matches the environment during encoding.

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that match one's current mood.

state-dependent memory

improved recall when one's internal state (such as being tired or intoxicated) during retrieval matches the state during encoding.

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also referred to as a retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning.

metacognition

awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes; "thinking about thinking."

forgetting curve

Ebbinghaus's graph showing that forgetting occurs rapidly at first, then levels off over time.

encoding failure

when information never enters long-term memory because it was not attended to or properly processed.

proactive interference

the forward-acting disruptive effect of older learning on the recall of new information.

retroactive interference

the backward-acting disruptive effect of newer learning on the recall of old information.

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

the temporary inability to retrieve a word or name while feeling that it is just out of reach.

repression (psychodynamic)

in Freud's theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from conscious awareness.

misinformation effect

occurs when a memory has been corrupted by misleading information.

source amnesia

faulty memory for how, when, or where information was learned or imagined (as when misattributing information to a wrong source). Source amnesia, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

constructive memory

memory that is influenced by prior knowledge, expectations, and new information, leading to possible distortions.

imagination inflation

increased confidence in a false memory after imagining the event; visualizing something can make it feel more real.

intelligence

the ability to learn from experience, solve problems, and use knowledge to adapt to new situations.

g (general intelligence)

according to Spearman and others, underlies all mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test.

intelligence quotient (IQ)

defined originally as the ratio of mental age (ma) to chronological age (ca) multiplied by 100 (thus, IQ = ma/ca × 100). On contemporary intelligence tests, the average performance for a given age is assigned a score of 100.

mental age

a measure of intelligence test performance devised by Binet; the level of performance typically associated with children of a certain chronological age. Thus, a child who does as well as an average 8-year-old is said to have a mental age of 8.

chronological age

the number of years a person has lived; used in calculating IQ in early intelligence testing.

standardization

defining uniform testing procedures and meaningful scores by comparison with the performance of a pretested group.

validity

the extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what it is supposed to. (See also predictive validity.)

construct validity

how much a test measures a concept or trait.

predictive validity

the success with which a test predicts the behavior it is designed to predict; it is assessed by computing the correlation between test scores and the criterion behavior. (Also called criterion-related validity.)

reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results, as assessed by the consistency of scores on two halves of the test, on alternative forms of the test, or on retesting.

test-retest reliability

the consistency of a test's results when the same people retake it.

split-half reliability

the degree to which two halves of the same test yield similar scores, indicating internal consistency.

stereotype threat

a self-confirming concern that one will be evaluated based on a negative stereotype.

stereotype lift

a performance boost that occurs when awareness of a positive stereotype about one's group enhances confidence and outcomes.

flynn effect

the rise in intelligence test performance over time and across cultures.

achievement tests

a test designed to assess what a person has learned.

aptitude tests

a test designed to predict a person's future performance; aptitude is the capacity to learn.

fixed mindset

the view that intelligence, abilities, and talents are unchangeable, even with effort.

growth mindset

a focus on learning and growing rather than viewing abilities as fixed.