Environmental global governance

RIO EARTH SUMMIT STRENGTHS (UNFCCC)

Established the UNFCCC, which recognised the importance of reducing carbon emissions (the basis of COPs).

RIO EARTH SUMMIT STRENGTHS (participation)

172 governments participated and 181 endorsed the principles of the UNFCCC.

RIO EARTH SUMMIT STRENGTHS (progress)

The UNFCCC also required signatories to attend regular climate conferences in order to evaluate progress.

RIO EARTH SUMMIT WEAKNESSES (targets)

It agreed to principles, not specific actions. No binding targets were taken.

RIO EARTH SUMMIT WEAKNESSES (burden)

The US did not agree that developed countries should shoulder the burden.

RIO EARTH SUMMIT WEAKNESSES (monitoring)

No monitoring procedures were taken, so states could not be held accountable.

KYOTO PROTOCOL SUCCESSES (binding targets)

Set international binding targets for 38 developed states and the EU to reduce carbon emissions by 5.2% by 2012.

KYOTO PROTOCOL SUCCESSES (Carbon trading)

Carbon trading- ‘cap and trade’ allowed governments that failed to reach their targets to purchase credits from those that exceeded their targets, creating a financial incentive.

KYOTO PROTOCOL WEAKNESSES (industrialising states)

Over 100 industrialising states (Brazil, China, India, South Africa, etc) were exempt from emission targets. Major emitting states were either exempt or withdrew- weak participation.

KYOTO PROTOCOL WEAKNESSES (US failure)

The US didn’t ratify the protocol, as they found 7% reduction of greenhouse gases by 2012 too much.

KYOTO PROTOCOL WEAKNESSES (Legal force)

It only came into legal force about 10 years later in 2005.

KYOTO PROTOCOL WEAKNESSES (Lack of targets)

No targets for developing world to cut its carbon too.

COPENHAGEN SUCCESSES (heads of government)

110 heads of government recognised that global temperature increase should not be more than 2°C above pre-industrial levels.

COPENHAGEN SUCCESSES (Developed world investment)

Agreement that the developed world would invest $100 billion to encourage green technology annually in the developing world.

COPENHAGEN WEAKNESSES (new targets)

No new emission targets.

COPENHAGEN WEAKNESSES (Fairness)

Still had a key challenge of fairness between targets for developed/developing states, making it impossible to achieve a consensus on how carbon reduction should be shared globally.

PARIS SUCCESSES (global consensus)

A near global consensus agreed to that temperature increase in the 21st century must be limited to 2°C all, if possible 1.5°C.

PARIS SUCCESSES (Carbon targets)

The developed and developing world agreed to submit their own carbon reduction targets (Intended Nationally Determined Contributions/INDCs). The criteria for targets was for them to be ambitious and exceeding previous targets. This was partly legally binding. INDCs would be regularly monitored to review progress.

PARIS FAILURES (monitoring)

States setting their own emission targets meant it was difficult to monitor and commitments have been insufficient.

PARIS FAILURES (INDC failures)

Even if INDCs were fully adhered to, global temperatures will still rise by 2.7°C this century.

PARIS FAILURES (Not binding)

Targets set were not binding.

GLASGOW SUCCESSES (temperature)

Resolved to pursue efforts to keep to 1.5°C.

GLASGOW SUCCESSES (coal power)

Agreement to ‘phase down’ coal power- India and China argued against this.

GLASGOW SUCCESSES (developed funding)

Developed states give $100 billion yearly until 2025 to developing countries (had not been met in 2020).

GLASGOW SUCCESSES (deforestation)

100 states agreed to stop deforestation by 2030, accounting for ~85% of world forests.

GLASGOW SUCCESSES (methane emissions)

US and China agreed to cut methane emissions.

GLASGOW SUCCESSES (pledges)

~90% of the world economy was covered by pledges.

GLASGOW FAILURES (INDCs adherement)

INDC pledges had not been kept to.

GLASGOW FAILURES (methane emissions and enforcement)

30% cut in methane emissions by 100 countries excluded China, India, and Russia. Lack of enforcement.

BAKU SUCCESSES (developed nations)

Developed nations agreed to mobilise $300 billion annually by 2035 to help developing countries.

BAKU SUCCESSES (UN backed body)

Established a UN–backed body to regulate carbon credit trading.

BAKU FAILURES (commitment)

Commitment was less than the $1.3 trillion demanded by developing nations.

BAKU FAILURES (lack of consensus)

No consensus on fossil fuel consumption reductions.

BAKU FAILURES (Host’s role)

Azerbaijan’s role as host was contentious (as a massive fossil fuel producer). The President of Azerbaijan called oil and gas a “gift from God.”

IPCC (January 2025)

Warmest January ever in 2025, exceeding last year’s levels.

IPCC (2024 warning)

2024 exceeded 1.5°C since pre-industrial level levels.

IPCC (global warming rate)

Global warming is occurring at a rate even faster than the IPCC expected, potentially with the Earth seeing up to 3 to 3.5°C in the next few decades.

IPCC (assessment)

Regular assessment of the impact and extent of climate change, as well as its causes and risks.

IPCC (solutions)

Provide possible solutions to reduce impacts of climate change and advises governments.

IPCC (expert review 2022)

721 experts from 90 countries were selected to take part in the 6th Assessment Review in 2022. 44% of its authors come from developing states.

IPCC (2015 report)

In the 2015 report, it stated that “1983 to 2013 was the warmest 30 year period for 1400 years.” The report confirmed that the loss of ice sheets in Antarctica and Greenland was most certainly due to human activity.

GLOBAL CIVIL SOCIETY, NGOs, NON-STATE ACTORS (Extinction Rebellion)

Extinction Rebellion, founded in 2018, focus on direct, disruptive action. Their strategy is to “go beyond politics,” calling for citizens to guide government action. They have generated significant media attention through their methods of breaking down democracy.

GLOBAL CIVIL SOCIETY, NGOs, NON-STATE ACTORS (Greenpeace)

Greenpeace, founded in 1969, use direct action with participation in the UN, giving them consultative status in ECOSOC. They raise £8m a year from private donations. They have dropped a ‘boulder barrier’ off the UK coastline in 2021. Some campaigns have had success, such as lobbying India to put forward its first Clean Air Action Plan.

GLOBAL CIVIL SOCIETY, NGOs, NON-STATE ACTORS (WWF)

The WWF, founded in 1961, focuses on nature conservation and biodiversity, using advocacy and awareness-raising with prominent celebrities (like the Duke of Cambridge, and Sir David Attenborough). Campaigns against whaling in the Antarctic have seen the number of blue whales increase in recent years, and humpback whales returning close to pre-whaling numbers. Wildlife law enforcement work has seen many positive signs of reducing illegal poaching in many African countries.

GLOBAL CIVIL SOCIETY, NGOs, NON-STATE ACTORS (David Attenborough)

Sir David Attenborough has released several documentaries, such as ‘A Life On Our Planet’ in 2020, and ‘Planet Earth’. He has addressed several UN climate change summits with other prominent activists like Greta Thunberg.

SHALLOW GREEN ECOLOGY (nature and environment)

Humans must live in harmony with nature. The environment is necessary for human prosperity and happiness, so must be protected.

SHALLOW GREEN ECOLOGY (Enlightened anthropocentrism)

Humanity is the steward, not the master, of nature. Nature’s value is determined by its use to humanity.

SHALLOW GREEN ECOLOGY (Green capitalism)

Ethical consumerism will drive TNCs to innovate and adopt corporate responsibility in order to keep making a profit.

SHALLOW GREEN ECOLOGY (Managerialism)

Using targets and incentives to encourage greener policy.

SHALLOW GREEN ECOLOGY (Strong faith in technology)

Technology can create sustainable development.

SHALLOW GREEN ECOLOGY (Weak sustainability)

The idea that the needs of the present should be met without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

DEEP GREEN ECOLOGY (main belief)

Industrialisation, consumerism, materialism, and limitless growth are the problem. A complete overturn of capitalism is the solution to bettering the environment.

DEEP GREEN ECOLOGY (Ecocentrism)

Humanity is not the centre of life on Earth. Believes nature is just as valuable as human kind, and that we should exist in a symbiotic relationship. Criticisms of this include it being misanthropic (anti-human) and ecofacism.

DEEP GREEN ECOLOGY (Rejects modern capitalism)

Believes in going back to smaller communities with strong sustainability, where happiness is based on quality of life, not the consumption of material goods.

DEEP GREEN ECOLOGY (Strong sustainability)

Strong sustainability involves a negative growth economy, moving to a zero growth economy, based on localised production to massively decrease the use of non-renewable resources and pollution.

DEEP GREEN ECOLOGY (James Lovelock)

James Lovelock popularised deep green ecology in his ‘Gaia’ thesis, in which he argued that Earth is a living being and therefore humans have a duty to protect that which sustain them, out of love rather than self interest.

TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS (what is it)

The commons are the global resources and environment that are shared among states, as no government or sovereign state owns them. This includes the seas, atmosphere, polar regions, and space. The tragedy of the commons is the challenge of protecting the global commons when selfish states are motivated to use and harm it to advance their own interests.

TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS (UNCLOS)

The UN Convention of the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)- prevents pollution of the seas and sets out the limits of states’ territory of waters. It makes it clear that states have a responsibility to prevent pollution of their own territories waters, so that pollution of international waters is prevented.

TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS (Antarctic Treaty Sytem)

The Antarctic Treaty System- various environmental protections for the region, including dedicating Antarctica to solely scientific research.

TRAGEDY OF THE COMMONS (UNFCCC)

The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC)- established the process through which international treaties have been agreed to protect the atmosphere.

MISCELLANEOUS (China and US carbon emissions)

China and the US combined account for 40% of the world’s carbon emissions. Some scientists have attributed pollution in China as the cause of intensifying storms over the Pacific Ocean, which have impacted weather systems in North America.

MISCELLANEOUS (BPs oil spill)

BP’s Deepwater Horizon oil spill in 2010 was the world’s worst oil disaster, causing widespread environmental damage to the Gulf of Mexico, affecting 176,000 km² of ocean.

MISCELLANEOUS (Plastic waste in ocean)

Up to 12 million tons of plastic waste reach the worlds oceans each year. Some estimates suggest that by 2050, the plastic in the ocean could weigh more than the fish that reside there.

MISCELLANEOUS (UNEP)

The UN Environment Programme (UNEP) highlights both the shortened long-term impacts of fossil fuels burning. 6.5 million deaths occur from air pollution yearly. Changing weather patterns threaten food production and rising sea levels.

MISCELLANEOUS (Antarctic Treaty)

In 1959, 12 states signed the Antarctic Treaty, protecting Antarctica for scientific research only, banning military activity and resource extraction.

MISCELLANEOUS (Oil and gas production in the Arctic)

Oil and gas production in the Arctic is rising, with Russia relying on the region for nearly 20% of its supplies. The US Department of Energy estimate that 13% of the world’s undiscovered oil reserves and 30% of undiscovered gas reserves are under the Arctic.

MISCELLANEOUS (NASA figures)

In 2013, the US space agency NASA estimated that there were 6000 tons of human generated debris orbiting earth (like pieces of defunct satellites/spacecraft).

MISCELLANEOUS (World population)

The UN estimates that world population will grow by 2 billion in the next 30 years.

MISCELLANEOUS (India and China air pollution deaths)

In both India and China, air pollution accounts for ~1 million deaths yearly.

MISCELLANEOUS (Paris Climate Agreement)

In 2015, the Paris Climate Change Agreement outlined that developing states would receive financial assistance to help them move closer to clean energy use.

MISCELLANEOUS (world super polluters and Paris Agreement)

In 2016, India agreed to ratify the Paris agreement. The world super polluters (China, US, India) had all signed it by 2016.

MISCELLANEOUS (IPCC estimates of global temp)

The IPCC estimates that global temperatures have risen by 1°C compared to pre-industrial levels. They believe temperatures will continue to rise by 0.1°C to 0.3°C every decade.

MISCELLANEOUS (UN analysis of sea levels)

UN analysis suggests sea levels could rise by as much as 60cm by the end of this century.

MISCELLANEOUS (Impact of natural disasters)

The impact of natural disasters in poor countries has been estimated as 20 to 30 times more than in industrialised countries.

MISCELLANEOUS (UN extreme weather deaths)

The UN reported that this century, extreme weather has claimed 71.2 million lives and caused economic losses of $3 trillion.

MISCELLANEOUS (Climate vulnerable countries)

70% of the most climate vulnerable countries are also the most economically and politically fragile.

MISCELLANEOUS (Net zero pledges)

The focus of the UN now is to encourage more countries to become net zero by 2050. The EU and UK have agreed to this.

MISCELLANEOUS (World electricity)

60% of the world’s electricity comes from coal and gas. In 2021, world energy from renewable sources was 28%.

MISCELLANEOUS (Global EV sales)

Global electric vehicles sales have been increasing and some countries have set a target date for phasing out the sale of fossil fuel reliant vehicles.

MISCELLANEOUS (UK’s Clean Air Act)

The UK’s Clean Air Act passed in 1956. UK taxes on petrol were introduced in the early 1990s. London Congestion Charge introduced in 2003 has reduced traffic by 27% and increased cycling by 60%.

MISCELLANEOUS (Delhi and Beijing)

Delhi and Beijing introduced bans on alternate days of vehicles with registration plates ending in odd or even numbers.

MISCELLANEOUS (Ecology party UK)

In the UK, the Ecology Party became the Green Party in 1990.

MISCELLANEOUS (Green party failures)

Green parties have failed to gain electoral support to form government, although in Germany and Latvia, have governed as junior partners in coalition.