Exam 4 minerals and vitamins

Hemoglobin

A component of red blood cells that contains most of the body's iron and helps carry, hold, and release oxygen.

What is the role of iron in living cells?

Every living cell – plant and animal – contains iron. Most of the iron in the body is a component of hemoglobin in red blood cells and myoglobin in muscle cells, helping them carry, hold, and release oxygen.

What is the absorption and regulation of dietary iron in the body?

Only about 10 to 15% of dietary iron is absorbed.

-The blood protein transferrin carries the iron to tissues throughout the body

-If there is a surplus of iron, proteins ferritin and hemosiderin store it in the liver and bone marrow.

-The hormone hepcidin, produced by the liver, is central to the regulation of iron balance.

How does hepcidin regulate iron levels in the body?

High levels of iron in blood (and liver) trigger hepcidin secretion, which reduces iron absorption and inhibits the release of stored iron.

low levels of iron in the blood suppress hepcidin secretion, allowing for increased iron absorption and mobilization of storage iron.

What are the symptoms of iron-deficiency anemia in children?

In children, iron-deficiency anemia can lead to irritability, restlessness, and an inability to pay attention.

What are the symptoms of iron-deficiency anemia?

characterized by symptoms such as fatigue, weakness, headaches, apathy, pale skin, behavioral changes, and reduced mental alertness.

What are the daily iron requirements for men and women?

Men need 8 mg of iron per day

while women need 18 mg per day.

Good sources of Iron

Clams / Beans / Beef steak / Beef liver / Dried fruits / Meat/ fish/ poultry

Zinc Deficiency

impairs immune response, causes abnormal taste, and can lead to impaired night vision.

While not widespread in developed countries, it can occur in vulnerable groups such as pregnant women, young children, the elderly, and vegetarians

Zinc Toxicity

-occurs only if consumed in large amounts.

-High zinc intake produces copper-deficiency anemia by inducing intestinal cells to synthesize large amounts of protein that captures copper in a non-absorbable form.

-Accidental intake of large amounts can cause vomiting, diarrhea, headaches, exhaustion, and can be fatal.

What is the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) of zinc for men and women?

Men need 11 mg of zinc per day

women need 8 mg per day.

Myoglobin

An iron-containing protein found in muscle cells that assists in carrying and holding oxygen.

Transferrin

A blood protein responsible for carrying iron to tissues throughout the body.

Ferritin and Hemosiderin

Proteins that store surplus iron in the liver and bone marrow.

Hepcidin

A hormone produced by the liver that regulates iron balance by reducing absorption and inhibiting the release of stored iron when blood levels are high.

Iron-deficiency (ANEMIA)

Iron deficiency is caused by inadequate intake

A condition affecting more than $1.6$ BILLION people characterized by low hemoglobin concentration and small, pale red blood cells that cannot carry enough oxygen.

During nerve impulse transmission and muscle contraction, which ions trade places across the cell membrane?

SODIUM AND POTASSIUM

Pica

A curious behavior seen in iron and zinc deficiency involving the craving and consumption of ice, chalk, clay, or starch.

Hemochromatosis

A genetic failure to prevent unneeded dietary iron from being absorbed, leading to iron overload.

Zinc

A trace mineral that activates more than $50$ different enzymes, assists in immune function, and is essential for wound healing, taste perception, and fetal development.

Copper-deficiency anemia

A condition produced by high zinc intake which induces intestinal cells to synthesize protein that captures copper in a non-absorbable form.

Selenium

A mineral that functions as an antioxidant and is associated with heart disease in children and young women in parts of China where soil is deficient.

Selenium deficiency

Selenium deficiency is associated with heart disease in children and young women in parts of China where the soil and foods lack selenium.

Selenium toxicity

High doses are toxic (causes vomiting, diarrhea, loss of hair and nails, and lesions of the skin and nervous system)

What is the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) of selenium for adults?

Adults need 55 μg of selenium per day.

What are good sources of selenium?

Meat, shellfish, and vegetables/grains grown on selenium-rich soil.

Iodide

The form iodine takes in the GI tract; it is an integral part of thyroid hormones that regulate metabolic rate and temperature, reproduction, growth, the making of blood cells, nerve, and muscle function

What are the effects of iodine deficiency / Iodine toxicity

Iodine deficiency causes the cells of the thyroid gland to enlarge until it is visible (goiter), making people sluggish and leading to weight gain.

Severe iodine deficiency during pregnancy can cause extreme and irreversible mental and physical retardation known as cretinism, with IQ levels as low as 20.

Iodine Toxicity can also enlarge the thyroid gland producing same results.

What is the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) of iodine for adults?

RDA for adults is 150 μg per day

The upper limit (UL) is 1,100 μg per day.

Major sources of Iodine

seafood, iodized salt

Goiter

A visible enlargement of the thyroid gland caused by iodine deficiency.

Cretinism

Extreme and irreversible mental and physical retardation caused by severe iodine deficiency during pregnancy, which can result in an IQ as low as $20$.

Copper

A trace mineral containing about 100 mg of copper, ¼ in muscles, ¼ in liver, brain and blood. the rest is in bones, kidneys and other tissues.

serves as a constituent of enzymes and plays a vital role in helping cells use iron

What are the effects of copper deficiency / copper toxicity

Copper deficiency is rare but can occur in premature and malnourished infants.

High intakes of zinc interfere with copper absorption and may lead to its deficiency.

& some genetic disorders can result in copper toxicity.

What is the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) of copper for adults?

The RDA for copper is 900 μg per day.

good dietary sources of copper

organ meats, legumes, whole grains, seafood, nuts, and seeds.

Manganese

A co-factor for many enzymes found primarily in the bones and metabolically active organs; toxicity is observed in miners who inhale its dust

What is the Adequate Intake (A.I) of manganese for men and women?

A.I (men) = 2.3 mg/day; (women) = 1.8 mg/day

U.L (upper limit) = 11 mg/day

Good sources of manganese

nuts, whole grains and leafy green vegetables

Fluorosis

Damage to the teeth caused by the consumption of too much fluoride.

What is the primary role of fluoride?

Fluoride's primary role is to prevent dental caries & is important for the mineralization of bones and teeth.

-About 70% of the U.S. population is served by public water systems with optimal levels of fluoride (0.7 mg/liter).

What are the effects of fluoride deficiency?

Fluoride deficiency, usually due to a lack in the water supply, causes an increased incidence of dental decay.

What is the Adequate Intake (A.I) of fluoride for men and women?

Fluoride A.I (men) = 4 mg/day; (women) = 3 mg/day

U.L (upper limit) = 10 mg/day

Chromium

An essential mineral that participates in carbohydrate and lipid metabolism and enhances the activity of the hormone insulin.

What are the effects of chromium deficiency?

When chromium is lacking, a diabetes-like condition can develop, characterized by elevated blood glucose, impaired glucose tolerance, insulin response, and glucagon response.

deficiency is unlikely given the small amount of chromium required by the body.

chromium A.I.

A.I (Men 19-50) = 35μg/day

(Men 51 and older) = 30 μg/day

A.I (Women 19-50) = 25 μg/day

(Women 51 and older) = 20 μg/day

Molybdenum

A trace mineral that functions as a working part of several metal-containing enzymes

Deficiency & toxicity are UNKNOWN

Molybdenum RDA

RDA = 45μg/day

Boron

A trace mineral that influences the activity of many enzymes and plays a key role in bone health, brain activity, and the immune system.

Nickel

trace mineral present in body tissues and is involved in various physiological processes. Deficiency of nickel can harm the liver.

Silicone

trace mineral involved in the formation of bones and collagen.

Cobalt

A trace mineral found in body tissues as a component of Vitamin $B_{12}$.

Who needs supplements?

1. People with specific nutrient deficiencies need specific supplements (prescribed).

2. People with low energy intakes (less than 1,600 calories/day, usually dieting) need a multi-vitamin.

3. Vegetarians, especially vegans.

4. People who have lactose intolerance or do not consume dairy products.

5. People in certain stages (pregnancy, growing, elderly) or sustaining injuries.

6. People with diseases, infections, or who have undergone surgery.

7. Individuals taking medications that interfere with the body’s use of specific nutrients.

8. People with a poor, unhealthy diet.

All should be assessed by a doctor as auto-diagnosing can lead to a risk of overdose and its toxic consequences.

Major Minerals

A group of essential minerals including Sodium, Potassium, Phosphorus, Calcium, Sulfur, and Magnesium.

Trace Minerals

A group of essential minerals including Fluoride, Manganese, Iron, Zinc, Copper, Molybdenum, Selenium, Iodine, and Chromium.

Sodium ($NaCl$)

The principal electrolyte in the extracellular fluid that helps maintain acid-base balance and is essential for muscle contraction and nerve transmission.

40% sodium

60% chloride

Sodium Content in Salt

$1\,g$ of salt = $400\,mg$ of Sodium;

$1$ teaspoon of salt ($6\,g$) = $2300\,mg$ of Sodium.

Sodium A.I. (19-50 years old, 51-70 yrs old, >70 yrs old)

19-50 years old = $1500\,mg/day$.

51-70 years old = $1200\,mg/day$

>70 years old = $1200\,mg/day$

High intake of Salt

→ hypertension, heart disease, and stroke

Top contributors of Salt in diet

▪ Breads and rolls ▪ Cold cuts and cured meats ▪ Pizza ▪ Fresh and Processed Poultry ▪ Soups ▪ Sandwiches (including cheeseburgers) ▪ Cheese ▪ Pasta dishes ▪Meat mixtures ▪ Snacks (popcorn, chips, pretzels)

How to cut salt intake:

✓Eating fresh, unprocessed foods

✓Cook with little or no salt added

✓Use sodium-free spices (bay leaves, garlic, ginger, oregano, rosemary, thyme)

✓Taste foods before automatically adding salt

✓Read LABELS ✓Cut the salty snacks

✓Go easy on cheese, especially processed

✓Avoid canned or instant soups ✓Cut the cold cuts

✓Avoid smoked meats and smoked fish

Sodium Tolerable Upper Intake Level (U.L.)

The maximum recommended daily intake for adults, set at $2300\,mg/day$.

Today, the average U.S. Sodium intake is more than 3,400 mg/day mainly from processed foods. Reducing Sodium intake could prevent an estimated 100,000 deaths and save up to $24 billion in health care costs

Chloride

The major negative ion of the extracellular fluids that maintains fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base balance; it is a component of stomach acid ($HCl$).

Potassium ($K$)

The main positively charged ion inside cells, vital for fluid balance, cell integrity, and nerve impulse transmission.

Potassium Deficiency Symptoms

Characterized by an increase in blood pressure, kidney stones, bone turnover, irregular heartbeats, muscle weakness, and glucose intolerance.

Further Potassium deficiency including Irregular heartbeats muscle weakness glucose intolerance

Potassium AI

The Adequate Intake for adults is set at $4700\,mg/day$.

Calcium ($Ca$)

The most abundant mineral in the body; $99\%$ is stored in bones and teeth, while $1\%$ circulates in fluids to regulate ion transport, nerve transmission, and blood clotting.

Also:

-Helps maintain normal blood pressure

-Essential to muscle contraction and heartbeat

-Allows secretion of hormones, digestive enzymes, and neurotransmitters

-Activates cellular enzymes that regulate many

Calcium Homeostasis

A regulatory system involving hormones and Vitamin D where the small intestine, bones, and kidneys adjust levels when blood calcium is too high or too low.

Calcium RDA (Adults)

For adults: Men (19-70 years) = $1000 \, mg/day$; Men (>70 years) = $1200 \, mg/day$; Women (51-70 years) = $1200 \, mg/day$.

Osteoporosis

A condition resulting from calcium deficiency that leads to easy bone fractures.

Phosphorus ($P$)

The second most abundant mineral in the body; it is a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, and phospholipids in cell membranes.

Phosphorus RDA (Adults)

The recommended dietary allowance for phosphorus is set at $700 \, mg/day$.

✓ Animal protein is the best source of phosphorus because it is abundant in animal cells.

✓ Milk and cheese are also rich sources.

Magnesium ($Mg$)

A mineral found mostly in bones (>50\%), with only 1% in the body fluids and the rest of it are in soft tissues that is critical for enzyme operation, protein synthesis, release of energy and muscle relaxation.

critical for normal heart function & supports normal functioning of immune system and inflammatory response

Magnesium Deficiency Causes

Mg deficiency can result from inadequate intake or factors such as:

❖ Vomiting ❖ Diarrhea ❖ Alcohol abuse ❖ Use of diuretics

Mg deficiency results in low blood calcium level.

Magnesium RDA

For men (19 to 30) = $400\,mg/day$

For men ($31$ and older) = $420\,mg/day$

For women (19 to 30) = $310\,mg/day$

For women ($31$ and older), it is $320\,mg/day$.

Sulfate(sulphur)

The oxidized form of sulfur required for the synthesis of sulfur-containing amino acids that form proteins for skin, hair, and nails.

4 common molecules Chloride is part of

1. Sodium Chloride (NaCl) 2. Calcium Chloride (CaCl) 3. Potassium Chloride (KCl) 4. Hydrochloric Acid (HCl)

True or False? Calcium does not play a role in blood clotting

False

True or False? Calcium does not play a role in muscle contraction and heartbeat

False

WHAT 3 THINGS OUR BODY DOES WHEN BLOOD CALCIUM FALLS TOO LOW?

1. Small intestine absorbs more Calcium. 2. Bones release more Calcium into the blood. 3. Kidneys excrete less Calcium

What is the best source of Phosphorus and why?

Animal protein because it is abundant in animal cells

Which Mineral if inhaled in large quantities over prolonged periods of time causes a severe toxic effect?

manganese

Vitamins

Organic micronutrients that do not provide energy, are needed in trace amounts ($\text{micrograms}$ or $\text{milligrams}$), and perform specific functions for growth, reproduction, and health maintenance.

Fat-Soluble Vitamins

Vitamins (A, D, E, and K) that are absorbed into the lymph and then the blood, travel with protein carriers, and are stored in the liver or fatty tissue.

Water-Soluble Vitamins

Vitamins (B-vitamins and Vitamin C) absorbed directly into the blood that travel freely and are readily excreted in the urine, requiring frequent doses.

Bioavailability

The amount of a vitamin absorbed and used by the body, which depends on the quantity provided and factors like digestion efficiency and food preparation.

Precursors

Inactive forms of vitamins available from foods that are converted into the active form once inside the body.

Vitamin A (Retinoids)

A fat-soluble vitamin occurring in three active forms: Retinol, Retinal (retinaldehyde), and Retinoic Acid.

What are the precursors of Vitamin A (Retinoids)?

The precursors of Vitamin A, also known as retinoids, include retinol, retinal (retinaldehyde), and beta carotene.

Retinoic Acid

The form of Vitamin A that regulates gene expression, influencing protein synthesis and metabolic activities.

Beta-Carotene

An extremely effective antioxidant and precursor to Vitamin A; excessive intake can impart a yellowish color to the skin.

Keratin

A hard, inflexible protein found in hair and nails that is produced by epithelial cells when Vitamin A is deficient, potentially leading to blindness.

Teratogenic risk

The risk of abnormal fetal development and birth defects associated with Vitamin A toxicity during pregnancy.

Retinol Activity Equivalents (RAE)

A measure of the amount of retinol the body derives from plant foods; the body can make 1 unit of retinol from 12 units of beta carotene.

Free Radicals

Compounds formed by oxygen that can start chain reactions in cell membranes, damaging structures and contributing to diseases like cancer and aging.

Vitamin D

A hormone synthesized in the skin via sunlight (UVB) that assists in the absorption of Calcium and Phosphorous for bone maintenance.

What are the precursors of Vitamin D?

The precursors of Vitamin D include cholecalciferol and ergocalciferol.

Rickets

A Vitamin D deficiency disease in children where bones fail to calcify normally, leading to skeletal abnormalities like bowed legs.

Osteomalacia

A condition characterized by the loss of calcium from the bones, typically due to Vitamin D deficiency.