US Congress, Presidency, and Bureaucracy: Key Terms and Concepts

Participation

The ways in which citizens engage in politics, from voting and campaigning to protests and contacting officials.

Constituency

The people represented by an elected official; the voters of a given district or state.

Pork Barrel Projects

Government-funded projects that bring money and jobs to a legislator's district, often to gain local support.

Earmarks

Specific provisions in legislation that allocate funds to particular recipients, often for local projects.

Casework

Assistance by members of Congress to constituents in dealing with federal agencies (e.g., Social Security claims).

Franking

Free mail (postage) privilege for members of Congress to communicate with constituents.

Hyperpartisanship

Intense loyalty to one's party that reduces cross-party cooperation and increases polarization.

Polarization

The ideological distance between parties (or within the public), leading to fewer moderates and more partisan conflict.

Bicameral legislature

A legislature with two chambers (e.g., U.S. Congress: House of Representatives and Senate).

Congressional oversight

The review, monitoring, and supervision of federal agencies, programs, and policy implementation by Congress.

Advice and consent

Senate authority to confirm presidential appointments (e.g., cabinet members, federal judges) and ratify treaties.

Reapportionment

The process of reallocating House seats to states after each decennial census based on population changes.

Redistricting

Redrawing the boundaries of electoral districts within a state, typically by the state legislature.

Gerrymandering

Manipulating district boundaries to favor one party or group, often through 'cracking' and 'packing' techniques.

Incumbency

Holding a political office while running for re-election; incumbents usually have an advantage due to name recognition and resources.

Coattail Effect

When a popular candidate (often a presidential candidate) helps down-ballot candidates from the same party get elected.

Majority Party

The political party in a legislative chamber with the most members; controls leadership and committee chairs.

Party Polarization

When political parties move further apart ideologically, making compromise more difficult.

Speaker of the House

The presiding officer of the House of Representatives; controls the House agenda and committee assignments.

Seniority System

A traditional method of assigning committee chairs and privileges based on length of service.

Conference Committees

Temporary committees formed to reconcile different versions of a bill passed by the House and Senate.

Filibuster

A Senate tactic of extended debate used to delay or block legislative action; often requires consent rules to continue.

Cloture

A procedure to end debate in the Senate; requires 60 votes for most legislation to cut off a filibuster.

Nuclear Option

A Senate procedure change that lowers the cloture threshold for certain actions (used for confirming nominees).

Veto

Presidential rejection of a bill; Congress can override with a two-thirds vote in both chambers.

Pocket Veto

If the president takes no action on a bill within 10 days and Congress adjourns, the bill does not become law.

Line-Item Veto

An executive power to veto specific parts of a spending bill; available to the Texas governor but not the U.S. president.

Impeachment

The House's power to charge a federal official with 'high crimes and misdemeanors'; the Senate holds the trial.

Cabinet

Heads of the major executive departments who advise the president; part of the executive branch's leadership.

Commander-in-Chief

The president's role as leader of the U.S. armed forces.

Executive Orders

Directives issued by the president that manage operations of the federal government and have the force of law unless overturned.

Senatorial Courtesy

An informal Senate practice of deferring to a senator from the president's party regarding federal appointments in that senator's state.

Inherent Powers

Powers claimed by the president that are not explicitly listed in the Constitution but inferred as necessary to govern.

Power to Persuade

The president's use of persuasion—bargaining, persuasion of the public, and agenda-setting—to influence policy.

Honeymoon Period

The early portion of a new president's term, when public approval is high and political capital is strongest.

Divided Government

When one party controls the presidency and another controls one or both houses of Congress.

Executive Office of the President (EOP)

A collection of offices and agencies that assist the president in policy, planning, and administration (e.g., OMB).

White House Office

Staff offices located in the White House that provide direct support to the president; includes the Chief of Staff.

Chief of Staff

The president's top aide who manages White House personnel, scheduling, and the flow of information to the president.

Bureaucracy

The complex structure of agencies, departments, and offices responsible for implementing government policy and delivering public services.

Neutral Competence

The idea that bureaucrats should be selected on merit and perform duties professionally and impartially.

Red Tape

Complex bureaucratic rules and procedures that slow down administrative action.

Spoils System

The practice of awarding government jobs to political supporters (patronage), common before civil service reforms.

Patronage

Appointments to government positions as rewards for political support rather than merit.

Civil Service

A system of hiring and promotion based on merit and protected from political interference.

Pendleton Act

An 1883 law establishing the federal civil service system and hiring based on merit rather than patronage.

Hatch Act

A law that restricts political activities of federal employees to ensure a nonpartisan civil service.

Clientele Groups

Interest groups whose members are served by a particular government agency and have a close relationship with it.

Departments (Cabinet)

Major administrative units responsible for broad policy areas (e.g., Department of Defense; heads are Cabinet secretaries).

Independent Agencies

Executive agencies outside of cabinet departments with narrower missions (e.g., NASA).

Independent Regulatory Boards & Commissions

Agencies that regulate important sectors of the economy and are insulated from presidential control (e.g., FCC, SEC).

Government Corporations

Government-owned corporations that provide services for a fee, often when private markets don't (e.g., USPS).

Bureaucratic Discretion

The authority agencies have to choose how to implement laws and regulations within broad legislative mandates.

Federal Register

The daily publication that notifies the public of proposed federal rules, final rules, and notices.

Whistleblowers

Employees who expose wrongdoing, fraud, or abuse within government agencies.

Agency Capture

When regulatory agencies act in the interest of the industries they regulate rather than the public.

Iron Triangles

Stable policy-making relationships among congressional committees, bureaucratic agencies, and interest groups.

Sunshine Laws

Laws requiring government meetings and records to be open to the public for transparency.

Freedom of Information Act (FOIA)

A 1966 law allowing public access to federal government records with certain exemptions.

Common Law Tradition

A legal system where judges follow precedent and past decisions matter greatly in shaping law.

Code/Civil/Roman Law Tradition

A legal system where laws are codified and judges apply statutory rules rather than relying heavily on precedent.

Precedent

Past judicial decisions that guide future rulings in similar cases (stare decisis).

Adversarial System

Court system where two parties present opposing arguments and a judge/jury decides the outcome.

Procedural Due Process

Legal procedures that the government must follow before depriving a person of life, liberty, or property.

Criminal v. Civil Law

Criminal law punishes offenses against the state (e.g., theft); civil law resolves disputes between private parties.

Constitutional Law

Law derived from the U.S. Constitution and its interpretation by courts.

Statutory Laws

Laws enacted by legislatures (Congress or state legislatures).

Administrative Law

Rules and regulations created by bureaucratic agencies under statutory authority.

Judicial Review

The power of courts to declare laws or executive actions unconstitutional (established in Marbury v. Madison).

Original v. Appellate Jurisdiction

Original: courts hear cases first; Appellate: courts review lower-court decisions.

Writs of Certiorari

Orders the Supreme Court issues to review lower court decisions; granted by the Rule of Four.

Rule of Four

At least four Supreme Court justices must vote to grant certiorari for a case to be heard.

Amicus Curiae Briefs

"Friend of the court" briefs filed by third parties to provide additional perspectives for the Court.

Judicial Activism

When judges are willing to overturn laws or make policy through bold interpretations of the Constitution.

Judicial Restraint

A philosophy that courts should defer to elected branches and avoid making policy.

Majority Opinion

The official statement of the court's reasoning and ruling in a case.

Concurring Opinions

Opinions written by justices who agree with the majority's outcome but for different legal reasons.

Dissenting Opinions

Opinions written by justices who disagree with the majority decision.

Civil Liberties

Protections from government actions found in the Bill of Rights and subsequent interpretations.

Habeas Corpus

A legal procedure that allows someone detained to seek relief if their detention is unlawful.

Ex Post Facto Laws

Laws that retroactively change the legal consequences of actions; the Constitution prohibits them.

Incorporation

The process by which the Supreme Court has applied the Bill of Rights to the states via the Fourteenth Amendment.

Establishment Clause

Clause in the First Amendment that prohibits the government from establishing an official religion.

Lemon Test

A three-part test from Lemon v. Kurtzman used to evaluate potential violations of the Establishment Clause.

Free Exercise Clause

Part of the First Amendment protecting individuals' rights to practice religion.

Compelling State Interest

A high standard of review requiring the government to show a very important reason to restrict rights.

Sedition

Conduct or speech inciting people to rebel against the authority of a state.

Imminent Lawless Action Test

From Brandenburg v. Ohio; speech can only be restricted if it is intended and likely to produce imminent lawless action.

Freedom of Assembly

The right to gather publicly for political or social purposes protected by the First Amendment.

Prior Restraint

Government actions that prevent speech or expression before it occurs; strongly disfavored by courts.

Libel

False written statements that harm a person's reputation; public figures face higher standards to win libel cases.

Due Process of Law

Legal principle that the government must follow fair procedures when depriving a person of life, liberty, or property.

Exclusionary Rule

A legal rule that excludes illegally obtained evidence from criminal trials.

17th Amendment

Established the direct election of U.S. Senators by voters rather than election by state legislatures.

22nd Amendment

Limits the president to two elected terms in office (plus a partial term limit).