civics: vocab 2

Articles of Confederation

America's very first attempt at a national government (1781). It kept the central government intentionally weak — no power to tax, no power to regulate trade, no real way to enforce laws.

Confederation Congress

The national legislature under the Articles — one delegate per state, one vote per state, no matter how big or small.

 Shays' Rebellion

An armed uprising by Massachusetts farmers (led by Daniel Shays) who were losing their land to debt and taxes. The national government couldn't stop it.

Constitutional Convention

A meeting in Philadelphia (May–September 1787) originally called to fix the Articles — but delegates ended up scrapping them entirely and writing a brand-new Constitution.

Delegate

A representative chosen to speak and vote on behalf of their state at a formal meeting or convention.

Virginia Plan

James Madison's proposal for a strong national government with a two-chamber (bicameral) legislature where representation was based on population. Big states loved it.

New Jersey Plan

The small states' counter-proposal: keep one legislative chamber, but give every state equal representation regardless of population.

Great Compromise

The deal that resolved the Virginia vs. New Jersey Plan standoff: create TWO chambers — a Senate with equal representation (2 per state) AND a House based on population.

Bicameral Legislature

A lawmaking body with two separate chambers. The U.S. Congress is bicameral — the Senate and the House of Representatives.

Three-Fifths Compromise

The agreement that enslaved people would be counted as 3/5 of a person when calculating a state's population (for House seats and taxes). Enslaved people could not vote.

Commerce Compromise

Congress got the power to regulate interstate and foreign trade — but with two concessions to the South: no taxes on exports, and the international slave trade could NOT be banned until 1808.

Ratification

The formal process of officially approving a proposed law, treaty, or constitution. For the U.S. Constitution, 9 of the 13 states had to approve it.

Federalism

A system of government that splits power between a national (federal) government and state governments — each with their own areas of authority.

Supremacy Clause

Found in Article VI: the Constitution and federal laws are "the supreme law of the land" — they override state laws when there's a conflict.

Enumerated Powers

The specific powers that the Constitution explicitly gives to Congress (Article I, Section 8) — like taxing, regulating commerce, declaring war, and coining money.

Necessary and Proper Clause

Also called the "Elastic Clause" — it gives Congress power to make any law that is "necessary and proper" for carrying out its enumerated powers.

Federalists

Supporters of the Constitution who argued that a strong national government was necessary to keep the country stable, protect rights, and ensure the young nation's survival.

Anti-Federalists

Opponents of ratification who believed the new Constitution gave too much power to the central government, trampled states' rights, and had no protections for individual liberties.

Federalist Papers

85 essays written by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay (1787–1788) arguing for ratification of the Constitution. Federalist No. 10 and No. 51 (both by Madison) are the most famous.

Publius

The pen name Hamilton, Madison, and Jay used when writing the Federalist Papers — taken from Publius Valerius Publicola, a founder of the Roman Republic.

Brutus

The pen name of an Anti-Federalist writer (likely Robert Yates of New York) who published essays warning that the Constitution would lead to tyranny and destroy state sovereignty.

Bill of Rights

The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1791. They protect freedoms like speech, religion, press, and the rights of the accused.

Mercy Otis Warren

A Massachusetts writer, poet, and political activist who argued against ratification under the pen name "A Columbian Patriot." One of the only women whose voice is recorded in the ratification debate.

Mercy Otis Warren

A Massachusetts writer, poet, and political activist who argued against ratification under the pen name "A Columbian Patriot." One of the only women whose voice is recorded in the ratification debate.

Abigail Adams

Wife of John Adams; one of the sharpest political minds of the founding era. In 1776, she wrote to John Adams urging him to "remember the ladies" in the new government.