Unit 0 - AP Psych Definitions

Study for IDA quiz one for AP Psych unit 0

Psychodynamic Perspective

Unconscious drives and childhood traumas

Cognitive Perspectives

How we encode process store and retrieve information

Behavioral Perspectives

Learned responses via rewards and Punishment

Humanistic Perspectives

Free will, self-actualization and personal growth

Evolutionary Perspectives

Natural selection; Behaviors that Aid survival

Biological Perspectives

Brain structures hormones and neurotransmitters

Sociocultural Perspectives

How Behavior varies across society, culture and groups

Cultural norms

The shared rules beliefs and expected behaviors that God people within a specific group or Society

Cognitive bias

Systematic errors in thinking that can influence how we perceive information and make decisions

Confirmation bias

Only looking for evidence that supports your decision

Hindsight bias

The I knew it phenomenon. The tendency to believe after learning an outcome that one would have foreseen it.

Overconfidence

Having too much trust in yourself or own abilities without a good reason/Being more confident than correct.

Experimental vs. non-experimental

Experimental is the only method that can prove cause and effect and requires an independent variable and random assignment, non experimental describes Behavior but cannot prove causation. Non Experimental describes behaviors via case study surveys other compute correlations that access associations among different factors

Hypothesis (falsifiable)

Testable prediction, often implied by theory, the falsibility is a mark of its scientific strength

Operational definition

A clear precise statement of how a variable is measured, it allows for replication

Independent variable (IV)

In an experiment the factor that is manipulated the variable whose effect is being studied

Dependent variable (DV)

In an experiment the outcome that is measured the variable that may change when the independent variable is manipulated

Confounding variables

An outside factor that might interfere with results

Population

The whole group you want to study

Sample

The smaller group you actually test out of the whole group or population of the study

Representative samples

selecting a small subset that accurately represents a larger population

Random Sample vs random assignment

Random sample is a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal change of inclusion, random assignment is about assigning participants to the experimental group or control group in an experiment by chance.

Convenience sample

collecting research from a group that is readily available

Sampling bias

when the sample is not representative of the population

Generalizability

The extent to which findings apply to a broader population. Focus on democratic characteristics.

Experimental group

An experiment the group exposed to the treatment that is one version of the independent variable

Control group

An experiment the group not exposed to the treatment contrast with the experimental group serves as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

Placebo group

Set of participants in a medical or scientific study who receive an inactive “dummy” treatment

Placebo effect

→Experimental results caused by expectations alone any effect on Behavior caused by the administration of an inherent substance or condition which the replicant assumes is an active agent.

Single-blind procedure

An experiment procedure in which the research participants are ignorant about whether they have received the treatment or a placebo

Double-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which both participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether participants have received the treatment or a placebo.

Experimenter bias

When a researchers expectations unknowingly influence the results

Social desirability bias

Answering in a way that makes one favorable to others

Self-report bias

When participants provide unaccurate information

False consensus effect

Overestimating how much others agree with you

Qualitative measures

research method that relies on in depth narrative data that are not translated into numbers

Structured interviews  

a research method where an interviewer ask every participant the exact same predertiermined questions in the same order (type of qualitativedata research)

Quantitative measures 

research method that relises on quantifiable numerical data

Likert scales

a rating system used in surveys to measure people's attitudes, opinions, and perceptions. questionnaire responses fall on continuum (ex. Strongly disagree → Strongly agree)

Appropriate representation

The extent to which a sample accurately reflects the characteristic of a larger population it is meant to represent

Replication and peer review

replication  is repeating a study to see whether the same results can be obtained. view is having other experts in the field evaluate research before it is published to check quality inaccuracy 

Case study

a nonexperiemntal technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles

Naturalistic observation

a nonexperiemntal technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation

Meta-analysis

A statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to region overall conclusion

Correlation (does not equal causation) 

a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together and thus of how well either factor predicts the other

Variables of interest

The specific factors are characteristics that are researcher is studying or measuring

Directionality problem

it cannot tell us which variable is the cause and which is the effect (in correlational resource)

Third-variable problem 

unmeasured third factor secretly drives the relationship between 2 correlated variables

Surveys

non experimental technique for obtaining the self reported attitudes or beahviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative random sample of a group

Wording effects

a phenomenon where the choice, order, or framing of words in a question, survey, or test changes how people respond

Institutional Review Board (for human and non-human research)

an administrative and ethical committee that reviews, approves, and monitors research involving human subjects to protect their rights, safety, and welfare

Informed consent

participants are told what a study involves including relevant risks and procedures and agree to participate

Informed assent

a minor agrees to participate in a study after is explained (parent/gardian concentalso required)

Protection from harm

researchers must protect participants from physical an psychological harm during a study

Confidentiality of participants

a researcher’s promise to keep a participant's private, identifiable information safe and secret

Anonymity

the state of a person or their actions being completely unknown, unnamed, or unlinked from any identifying personal details

Deception and correction

Deception is the act of intentionally misleading someone by presenting false information or withholding the truth. Correction involves identifying that falsehood and replacing it with the actual truth, which is a required step in fields like research ethics

Confederate

a person working with the researcher who pretends to be another participant in the study

Debriefing

the post experiment explanation of a study including its purpose and any deceptions to its participant 

Table, graph, chart, figure

Visual ways of organizing and presenting data so that  patterns relationships and the results can be easily understood

Central tendency

A measure that describes the typical or Central score in a distribution three main measures are mean median mode range 

Mean

The arithmetic average of a distribution obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores 

Median

The middle score in a distribution, half the scores are above it and half are below

Mode 

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest score distribution 

Standard deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score 

Normal curve (percentages)

A symmetrical bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data most scores fall near the mean and fewer scores lie near the extremes (also called normal distribution)

Percentile rank

The percentage of scores in a distribution that fall at or below a particular score 

Skewness

The degree to which a distribution is not symmetrical because scores are concentrated more towards one side

Bimodal distributions

Distributions with two distinct Peaks or modes indicating that two scores are ranges of scores occur most frequently 

Regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme or unusual scores of events to fall back towards the average. 

Inferential statistic

A statistic used to draw conclusions about a larger population based on data collected from a sample

Scatterplots 

a graphed cluster of dots each of which represents the values of 2 variable. The slope points suggest the direction of the relationship between the 2 variables. The amount of scatter suggests the strength of correlation

Correlation coefficient

a statistical index of the relationship between 2 variables

Positive correlation

2 sets of scores tend to rise or fall together

Negative correlaion

2 sets of scores related inversely one set going up while other goes down

Non-correlation

A relationship in which there is little or no consistent Association between two variables knowing one variable does not help predict the other 

Effect size

The strength of the relationship between two variables. the larger the effect size the more one variable can be explained by the other 

Statistical significance

Statistical statement of how likely it is that a result occurred by chance assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied