Linguistic anthropology

What is Linguistic anthropology?

• The study of human languages in the context of the cultures that developed them

• It explores how language shapes communication, forms social identity and group membership, organizes cultural beliefs and ideologies, and develops in historical, political, and economic contexts

What do Linguistic anthropologists study?

• The relationship between language and culture

• Language use in social contexts

• The structure of languages

• Language change over time

• The way language constructs meaning and social relations

What are the methods?

• Uses traditional ethnographic methods (qualitative)

• Common methods include ethnographic fieldwork, participant observation, audio/video recordings, interviews, discourse analysis, and linguistic comparison

What is language change?

Language change refers to the evolution of language over time, including changes in phonetics, syntax, semantics, and lexicon

What is language learning?

The process by which humans acquire the capacity to perceive, produce and use words to understand and communicate

• This includes first-language acquisition in childhood and second-language learning later in life

• Language is transformed as it is transmitted from one generation to the next

What is lexical change?

Refers to changes in the vocabulary of a language - new words that are added or created

• This includes the addition of new words, loss of old words, or changes in word usage

What is semantic change?

The shift in meaning of words over time

What is language contact

Occurs when speakers of different languages interact regularly, often resulting in borrowing, code-switching, or the development of pidgins and creoles

What is social differentiation?

The process through which language reflects and constructs social distinctions such as class, ethnicity, gender, or age

How can social differentiation be achieved?

• Vocabulary (slang or jargon)

• Pronunciation

• Morphological processes

• Syntactic constructions

What is “register”?

• Differing levels of formality in speaking

• Our register changes based on our audience, what we are speaking about, our purpose, and the location

• Example: formal register in a business meeting vs. informal register with friends

What are speech communities?

Categories of group identity (ethnicity, the national origin of ancestors, age, and gender) can be symbolized by the way we speak

• Our speech patterns can indicate which groups we belong to and give clues about our identity

What is a symbol?

Anything that serves to refer to something else but has a meaning that cannot be guessed because there is no obvious connection between the symbol and its referent

• Arbitrariness

What is Arbitrariness?

The lack of inherent connection between a linguistic sign and its meaning

• The form of the word does not resemble its meaning

What is an icon?

A sign that resembles its meaning or referent, such as a picture of a tree representing a tree

• icon is different from symbol

What is lexicon?

The vocabulary of a language, including its words and expressions

What is linguistic relativity?

The idea that the structure of a language affects its speakers’ world view or the perception of its speakers

What does “semanticity” mean?

Communication carries meaning for the users

• The use of symbols to convey specific meanings

What is pragmatic function?

All sign serve a useful purpose

What does interchangeability in communication systems mean?

The ability of individuals to both send and receive messages using language

What is cultural transmission?

Language is passed from one generation to the next through social learning, not just biologically

What does discreteness in the human language mean?

Language is made up of distinct, separate units (sounds) that can be combined to form meaning

• Discrete sounds (ex. “P”, “b”, “t”)

What is Duality of Patterning? (the 2 levels)

Language operates on two levels: 

First level = discrete sounds put together to form words or parts of words that have meaning (morphemes)

Second level = morphemes combined to create longer messages

What does displacement in human language mean?

Language can refer to things not present in the immediate time or space (e.g., past, future, hypothetical)

• The ability to communicate about things that are outside of the here and now

What does productivity/creativity mean?

The ability to produce and understand messages that have never been expressed before or to produce new ideas 

What does ambiguity mean?

The capacity for language to have multiple meanings or interpretations

What does variety mean?

Our ability to arrange words into an infinite number of ideas 

What are the 3 biological factors of human language?

1. Larynx

2. Shape of our tongue and palate

3. Brain

What are some examples of non-verbal communication? (Kinesics)

• Gestures

• Facial expressions

• Body language

• Posture  

• Eye contact

• Sign language

• Proxemics (use of space)

What are the elements of personal communication (%)

Spoken words - 7%

Voice/tone - 38%

Body language - 55%

What is paralanguage?

• pitch

• tempo

• loudness

• duration

Signifier vs Signified

Signifier = the sound associated with, or image of something 

Signified = the idea or concept of a thing

What are the universals of language? (7)

1. All human cultures have a human language and use it to communicate

2. All human languages change over time

3. All languages are symbolic systems

4. All languages have a basic word order of elements, like subject, verb, and object

5. All languages have similar basic grammatical categories (nouns, verbs)

6. Every spoken language is made up of discrete sounds that can be categorized as vowels or consonants 

7. The underlying structure of all languages is characterized by the feature duality of patterning 

How are the universals of language applied?

They help in understanding the structure of language, guide linguistic theory, and support arguments about the innate language faculty

What are language structures and what are the 5 we talk about?

work together to help create meaningful communication among individuals 

• Lexicon

• Phoneme

• Morpheme

• Phrases and syntax 

What is semantics?

The study of meaning

What are pragmatics?

the social and cultural aspects of meaning and how the context of an interaction affects it 

What are presuppositions?

Assumptions a speaker makes that must be true for the utterance to make sense

• Example: “I dreamed that I was rich” - the presupposition is that I am not rich already 

What is the Speech Act Theory (Austin) ?

Considers language as an action rather than simply a method of conveying or expressing something

• People not only use language to assert things but also to do things 

What is a constative?

A statement that describes the world and can be true or false

• Performs the following functions:

  • Conveys a message

  • Message can be compared to real world to determine true or false 

What is a failed constative?

A constative that fails due to lack of truth or context

What are performatives?

A speech act that performs the action it describes (e.g., “I apologize,” “I pronounce you married”)

What are Grice’s Maxims?

1. Maxim of quality

2. Maxim of quantity

3. Maxim of relation

4. Maxim of manner

1. Maxim of quality

We have to tell the truth or something that is provable by evidence

2. Maxim of quantity

We have to be as informative as required - don't say any more or less

3. Maxim of relation

Our response has to be relevant to the topic of discussion

4. Maxim of manner

 We have to avoid ambiguity or obscurity

What does “flouting a maxim” mean?

Intentionally violating a maxim to imply something indirectly (e.g., sarcasm)

What does “violating a maxim” mean?

The speaker is either outright lying by violating the maxim of quality, or being intentionally misleading by violating another maxim 

What does it mean that language is referential and interpersonal?

Referential -  Language used to convey factual information

Interpersonal - Language used to manage social relationships and interactions

What does code-switching mean?

The practice of moving back and forth between two languages, two dialects, or using language differently because of different circumstances 

• The ability to go from one register to another guided by context 

What is indexicality?

• A specific aspect of speech is selected as noticeable or meaningful 

• A certain meaning is associated with that aspect of speech (can be positive or negative)

• Positive or negative values or attributed to the speaker and all members of the group

• Ex. accents 

What is intertextuality?

The relationship between texts, where one text references or builds upon another

• Quoting, borrowing, or reworking part of a recognizable text

What is heteroglossia?

The coexistence of multiple varieties or voices in language use, often reflecting social diversity

• All the different ways people speak to one another and how each appropriates each others speech/ideas and concepts to make it their own

• Differences occur between class, gender, race, etc.

What is transgressive speech?

Language that violates norms, often used for resistance or challenging authority (e.g., slang, taboo words)

What are standard varieties/languages ?

Language forms that are socially accepted as the norm, often taught in schools and used in formal settings

• Often spoken by the people with greatest amount of prestige, power, and (usually) wealth

What are non-standard vernaculars?

Varieties that differ from the standard; often stigmatized but equally rule-governed

What are dialects?

Regional or social variations of a language with distinct phonological, lexical, and grammatical features

• Example: saying ‘eh’ in Canada

Descriptive vs Prescriptive

Descriptive = Describes how language is actually used by speakers

Prescriptive = Dictates how language should be used according to certain norms or rules

Grammatical vs Ungrammatical 

Grammatical = Conforms to the rules of a particular language variety

Ungrammatical =  Does not conform to those rules; may be judged as incorrect by speakers

All language varieties… (4)

1. All language varieties are equally complex

2. All language varieties are equally useful for communication

3. All language varieties can communicate any referential proposition 

4. All language varieties are structured and rule-bound at every level

What are language ideologies?

The beliefs and attitudes that shape a speakers’ relationships to their own language and to others’ languages 

• What we think is “right” or “wrong”

• Create inequalities 

What is linguistic prejudice?

Discrimination based on language use, often targeting non-standard varieties or accents

• Discriminate against racial or socio-econoic groups, by using certain criticism of nonstandard dialects to criticise the speakers 

What is raciolinguistics?

The study of how language and race intersect in shaping social hierarchies and identities

What is language acquisition?

The process by which humans learn language, typically divided into first and second language acquisition

What are language gaps?

Situations where a word or expression in one language has no direct equivalent in another

What is linguistic capital?

The value assigned to certain language practices that can be converted into social or economic advantage

What is linguistic market?

The idea that different language practices have different values in various social contexts

What is linguistic diversity?

The number of distinct languages being spoken around the world

What is multilingualism?

The ability of individuals or communities to use more than one language

What os flexible multilingualism?

A fluid and dynamic use of multiple languages, often in informal or context-specific ways

Speaking styles and social class

Social class - Language use often reflects and reinforces class distinctions

Speaking styles and ethnicity

Ethnicity - Language can be used to express ethnic identity or affiliation

Speaking styles and gender

Gender - Differences in language use often correlate with gender norms and expectations

What are communities of practice?

 A group who share a common interest and desire to learn from and contribute to the community with their variety of experiences 

• A group who share similar goals, interests, and experiences 

What is markedness?

• A way of talking about oppositions

• Markedness refers to how certain linguistic forms are seen as "normal" or "default" (unmarked) while others are seen as different or special (marked)

Marked vs unmarked categories

Marked categories = those that deviate from the norm and are often explicitly noted (e.g., "female doctor")

Unmarked categories = considered the norm or default (e.g., "he" as a generic pronoun)

What is language revitalization?

Efforts to recover, maintain, and promote languages that are endangered or no longer spoken

What is translation?

The process of converting text or speech from one language to another, focusing on conveying meaning

What is interpretation?

The real-time spoken or signed translation of one language into another, often in conversation or public settings

What is language planning?

Intended to promote systemic change among a specific community of language speakers 

• Can include regulating and improving existing languages or creating new regional or national languages 

What is language reform?

Efforts to change language use to reflect social change, such as using gender-neutral terms or replacing offensive words

What is language revival?

the attempt to restore to common use a language which has few or no surviving native speakers 

What is language maintenance?

preservation of a group’s native language as a first or second language

What is language spread?

the attempt to increase the number of speakers of a language