Rhetorical Strategies and MLA Guidelines for AP English

antithesis

the opposition or contrast of ideas; the direct opposite.

aphorism

A terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral principle.

appeal to ethos

writers establish their credibility to get us to believe/trust their argument; this type of appeal demonstrates reliability on the part of the speaker and respect for the audience's ideas.

appeal to logos

writers use logic to engage the intellect in reason; these types of appeals evoke a cognitive response.

appeal to pathos

writers appeal to the emotions to touch a nerve and compel people to action.

Aristotelian Triangle aka Rhetorical Triangle

the relationship between speaker, text, and reader; and the use of the appeals to ethos, pathos, and logos in an argument.

atmosphere

The emotional nod created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by the setting and partly by the author's choice of objects that are described.

caricature

a verbal description, the purpose of which is to exaggerate or distort, for comic effect, a person's distinctive physical features or other characteristics.

deductive reasoning

reaching a probable conclusion based on given premises (moves from a general rule to specifics).

exordium

the introductory part of an argument in which a speaker or writer establishes credibility (ethos) and announces the subject and purpose of the discourse.

generalization

refers to large classes, concepts, groups, and emotions.

inductive reasoning

forming a generalization from a set of specific examples (moves from specifics to a generalization).

inference/infer

To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented.

Juxtaposition

the act or an instance of placing two or more things side by side often to compare or contrast or to create an interesting effect.

prose

one of the major divisions of genre, prose refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all its forms.

rhetoric

From the Greek for 'orator,' this term describes the principles governing the art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.

style

The consideration of style has two purposes: An evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax, figurative language, and other literary devices.

syllogism

a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first one called 'major' and the second called 'minor') that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion.

conclusion

Therefore, Socrates is a mortal.

symbol/symbolism

Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else.

natural symbols

Objects and occurrences from nature to symbolize ideas commonly associated with them (dawn symbolizing hope or a new beginning, a rose symbolizing love, a tree symbolizing knowledge).

conventional symbols

Those that have been invested with meaning by a group (religious symbols such as a cross or Star of David; national symbols, such as a flag or an eagle; or group symbols, such as a skull and crossbones for pirates or the scale of justice for lawyers).

literary symbols

Sometimes also conventional in the sense that they are found in a variety of works and are more generally recognized.

theme

The central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life.

thesis

In expository writing, the thesis statement is the sentence or group of sentences that directly expresses the author's opinion, purpose, meaning, or position.

transition

A word or phrase that links different ideas.

verisimilitude

Having the appearance of truthfulness.

wit

In modern usage, intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights.

anadiplosis

Takes the last word of a sentence or phrase and repeats it near the beginning of the next sentence or phrase.

antecedent

The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun.

appositive

Word or phrase that renames the noun right beside it.

clause

A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb.

em dash

See this website for the versatile em dash.

epistrophe

Ending a series of lines, phrases, clauses, or sentences with the same word or words.

loose sentence/non-periodic sentence

A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses.

loose sentence

A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, or conversational.

periodic sentence

The opposite of loose sentence, a sentence that presents its central meaning in a main clause at the end.

parallelism

Refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words, phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity.

anaphora

A sub-type of parallelism, when the exact repetition of words or phrases at the beginning of successive lines or sentences.

repetition

The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern.

subject complement

The word (with any accompanying phrases) or clause that follows a linking verb and complements, or completes, the subject of the sentence.

predicate nominative

A noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject.

predicate adjective

An adjective, a group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a linking verb and modifies, or describes, the subject.

subordinate clause

A word group that contains both a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone; it does not express a complete thought.

syntax

The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences.

alliteration

The repetition of sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words.

ambiguity

The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage.

colloquial/colloquialism

The use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone. Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.

connotation

The non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning. Connotations may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes.

denotation

The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or color. (Example: the denotation of a knife would be a utensil used to cut; the connotation of a knife might be fear, violence, anger, foreboding, etc.)

diction

Related to style, diction refers to the writer's word choices, especially with regard to their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. For the AP exam, you should be able to describe an author's diction (for example, formal or informal, ornate or plain) and understand the ways in which diction can complement the author's purpose. Diction, combined with syntax, figurative language, literary devices, etc., creates an author's style.

didactic

From the Greek, didactic literally means 'teaching.' Didactic words have the primary aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles.

double entendre

Ambiguity of meaning arising from language that lends itself to more than one interpretation.

euphemism

From the Greek for 'good speech,' euphemisms are a more agreeable or less offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be used to adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement. Saying 'earthly remains' rather than 'corpse' is an example of euphemism.

invective

An emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language. (For example, in Henry IV, Part I, Prince Hal calls the large character of Falstaff 'this sanguine coward, this bedpresser, this horseback breaker, this huge hill of flesh.')

jargon

Special words associated with a specific area of knowledge or profession.

loaded language

Words with strong connotations usually employed to evoke an emotional response.

mood

The prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can affect the mood. Mood is similar to tone and atmosphere.

onomatopoeia

A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words. Simple examples include such words as buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur. If you note examples of onomatopoeia in an essay passage, note the effect.

pedantic

An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish (language that might be described as 'show-offy'; using big words for the sake of using big words).

recursive

Repeating over and over.

sarcasm

From the Greek meaning 'to tear flesh,' sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic (that is, intended to ridicule). When well done, sarcasm can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it is simply cruel.

semantics

The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and psychological development, their connotations, and their relation to one another.

tone

Similar to mood, tone describes the author's attitude toward his material, the audience, or both.

analogy

A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its similarity to something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative, or intellectually engaging.

apostrophe

A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that cannot answer.

conceit

A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness as a result of the unusual comparison being made.

enthymeme

A figure of speech which bases a conclusion on the truth of its contrary. An example: If to be foolish is evil, then it is virtuous to be wise.

extended metaphor

A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or throughout a work.

figurative language

Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is usually meant to be imaginative and vivid.

figure of speech

A device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar things. Figures of speech include apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, oxymoron, paradox, personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement.

hyperbole

A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is also possible.

imagery

The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions. It uses terms related to the five senses: visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory.

irony/ironic

The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant, or the difference between what appears to be and what is actually true.

verbal irony

When the words literally state the opposite of the writer's (or speaker's) meaning.

situational irony

When events turn out the opposite of what was expected; when what the characters and readers think ought to happen is not what does happen.

dramatic irony

When facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work.

litotes

A form of understatement that involves making an affirmative point by denying its opposite. Litote is the opposite of hyperbole.

metaphor

A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity.

metonymy

A figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another closely associated with it.

oxymoron

A figure of speech that groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox, such as 'jumbo shrimp' and 'cruel kindness.'

paradox

A statement that appears self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but contains some degree of truth upon closer inspection.

personification

A figure of speech that endows concepts, animals, or inanimate objects with human attributes or emotions.

synecdoche

A figure of speech in which a part of something represents the whole or the whole represents a part, such as referring to a boat as a 'sail.'

synesthesia

When one kind of sensory stimulus evokes the subjective experience of another, as in associating two or more different senses in the same image.

understatement

The ironic minimizing of fact, presenting something as less significant than it is, often with a humorous effect.

allegory

The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an abstraction in addition to the literal meaning.

generic conventions

Traditions for each genre that help define it, differentiating between types of writing such as essays and journalistic writing.

genre

The major category into which a literary work fits, such as prose, poetry, and drama, with many subdivisions.

homily

Literally means 'sermon,' but can include any serious talk or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.

parody

A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of comic effect and/or ridicule.

rhetorical modes

This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of the major kinds of writing.

exposition

The purpose of exposition (or expository writing) is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea, relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion.

argumentation

The purpose of argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound reasoning, discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader.

persuasive writing

A type of argumentation having an additional aim of urging some form of action.

description

The purpose of description is to recreate, invent, or visually present a person, place, event or action so that the reader can picture that being described.

narration

The purpose of narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events.

satire

A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule, recognized by devices such as irony, wit, and sarcasm.

allusion

A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known, such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art.

point of view

In literature, the perspective from which a story is told, with divisions including first person and third person.