Module 1: History & Development of Contemporary World and the Philippines

Sociology

Derived from Latin "socius" (groups/partners) and Greek "logus" (science/study); the scientific study of patterns of human interaction and group life

Sociological Imagination

Term coined by C. Wright Mills (1959); the vivid awareness of the relationship between personal experience and the wider society

C. Wright Mills

American sociologist (Columbia University, 1946-1962); author of "The Sociological Imagination" (1959); influenced by Max Weber

Personal Trouble

A private problem of an individual arising from events in his/her own life, solvable by the individual (e.g., getting fired, unemployment for one person)

Public Issue

A problem affecting large groups of people, arising from the structure of society, needing outside/structural solutions (e.g., mass unemployment)

Micro Perspective

Sociological level of analysis focused on individuals and differences in how they view the world

Meso Perspective

Sociological level of analysis focused on networks/connections, e.g., influence of family, friends, neighbors

Macro Perspective

Sociological level of analysis focused on institutions/organizations (capitalism, religion, government) affecting people

Culture (academic definition)

Term used by social scientists to encompass all facets of human experience; how we understand ourselves as individuals and as members of society

Culture (Swidler, 1986)

"Beliefs, ritual practices, art forms, ceremonies, as well as informal practices such as language, gossip, stories and rituals of life"

Society (Ginsberg's definition)

"A collection of individuals united by certain relations or modes of behaviour which mark them off from others who do not enter into those relations or differ from them in behaviour"

Society (in Sociology)

Refers not to a group of people but to the complex pattern of norms of interaction that arise among them

Material Culture

Physical tools, objects, resources, and spaces people use to define their culture (e.g., vehicle, food, church)

Non-Material Culture

Non-physical ideas people have about their culture, including beliefs, values, rules, norms, morals, languages, organization, institutions

High Culture

Culture associated with refinement, prestige, and elite institutions (e.g., ballet, orchestras, fine art, luxury brands)

Popular Culture

Mass-consumed, widely shared cultural trends (e.g., TikTok, mainstream sports, streaming shows)

Aboriginal Culture

A holistic culture defined by its connection to family, community, and country

Public Culture

Material or ideas out in the open, seen at a national or meso level (e.g., food, language, workplace roles)

Personal Culture

The culture an individual holds, acquired through their own experiences and interactions (e.g., friendship formation)

Cultural Relativism

The notion that we should carefully understand cultures before making judgments; opposite of ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism

Judging another culture by the standards of one's own culture, often assuming one's own is superior

Xenocentrism

A preference for the foreign or other culture over one's own; opposite of ethnocentrism

Culture Shock

The disorientation felt when encountering an unfamiliar culture

Culture Lag

When material culture (technology) changes faster than non-material culture (norms, values, laws) can adapt

Agentic Explanations

Explanations of human behavior holding that individuals have power to determine their own fate

Structural Explanations

Explanations of human behavior holding that individuals are highly constrained by social forces

Cultured Person

The level of culture pertaining to an individual

Global Society

The level of culture referring to humanity as a whole

Folkways

Norms seen as not extremely important; violating them does not bring severe punishment

Mores

Norms seen as extremely important; violation results in severe punishment

Technicways

Skills or habits associated with material, utilitarian objects (e.g., the right way to drive or type)

Laws

Deliberately formulated rules of behavior enforced by a special authority with power to apply coercion

Fashion

Folkways that endure for a short time and enjoy widespread acceptance within a society

Fads

Folkways that endure for a short time and enjoy acceptance only among a segment of society

Knowledge (sociological term)

Lore or science involving intellectual awareness and technical control of matter, time, space, and events

Beliefs (sociological term)

Ideas concerning the universe or any of its component parts, including humans

Values (sociological term)

Individually held or community-shared conceptions of the desirable

Social Structure

The network of organized relationships among individuals and groups defining mutual rights and responsibilities, based on differentiation

Institutions

Clusters of norms organized and established for pursuing a social group's need or activity, supported by shared knowledge, beliefs, and values

Subculture

A group with a distinctive way of thinking, feeling, and acting that sets it apart from the larger society

Contra Culture

A subculture whose members' ways of thinking, feeling, and acting oppose and clash with those of the larger society

Dominant Culture

The culture that controls society; the "upper" culture

Explicit Culture

Rules, customs, and regularities in behavior that people are consciously aware of (e.g., driving on the right, shaking hands)

Implicit Culture

Aspects of culture frequently unrecognized by people that still give direction to behavior (e.g., Filipino siesta habits)

Manifest Function

The intended function of a policy, process, or action

Latent Function

A function that is not consciously intended but still produces benefits

Dysfunction (Merton)

A harmful, unintended outcome of a policy or social process

Herbert Gans

Sociologist who wrote "The Uses of Poverty: The Poor Pay All" (1971), examining the latent functions of poverty

Robert Merton

Sociologist who developed the concepts of manifest function, latent function, and dysfunction

Function of Poverty (jobs)

Poverty creates certain necessary jobs that others avoid, such as garbage collecting

Function of Poverty (subsidy)

The poor, working at low wages, subsidize activities that benefit the upper classes

Function of Poverty (scapegoating)

The poor can be identified or punished as alleged deviants to uphold the legitimacy of conventional norms

Kapwa

Filipino philosophy that "the other person is also yourself"; belief in no separate existence, only oneness

Babaylan

A shaman and celebrant, considered the epitome of openness in traditional Filipino culture

Tulay Principle

The "bridge" principle used in Filipino conflict resolution, reflecting social harmony and integration

Bahala Na

Filipino value reflecting a fatalistic outlook; belief in suerte (luck), passivity, "Filipino time"

Utang na Loob

Filipino value referring to a debt of gratitude

Pakikisama

Filipino value referring to camaraderie and group-centeredness, e.g., barkada, compadre system

Hiya

Filipino value referring to a sense of shame or shame-orientation

Amor Propio

Filipino value referring to self-esteem or pride

Loob Complex

Talisayon's (1990) framework centering the Filipino value system on inwardness (loob), including hospitality, family orientation, and pakikiramdam

Edward B. Tylor

English anthropologist who first used the modern definition of "culture" in his 1871 book "Primitive Culture"