Sensation, Perception, and Learning

A comprehensive set of flashcards covering key vocabulary and concepts related to sensation, perception, learning theories, memory processes, and psychological research methods.

Sensation

When sensory receptors detect sensory stimuli.

Perception

How we interpret, organize, and categorize sensory information.

Absolute Threshold

The minimum amount of stimulus energy that must be present for a stimulus to be detected 50% of the time.

Just Noticeable Difference (JND)

The minimum amount of stimulus energy needed to detect a difference or change between stimuli.

Sensory Adaptation

When we become less aware of a constant stimulus over time.

Classical Conditioning

Learning through associations between stimuli that allow an organism to anticipate events.

Operant Conditioning

Learning from the consequences of behavior.

Observational Learning

Learning by watching others and imitating their behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Strengthening a behavior by removing an unpleasant stimulus after the behavior occurs.

ABC Model

A model for understanding behavior consisting of Antecedent, Behavior, and Consequence.

Reinforcement

Any consequence that increases the likelihood of a behavior.

Punishment

Any consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behavior.

Positive Punishment

Adding a stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Negative Punishment

Removing a stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Primary Reinforcers

Reinforcers with innate reinforcing qualities that are naturally satisfying.

Secondary Reinforcers

Reinforcers that must be learned or associated with rewards.

Schema

A mental concept or framework that helps organize and interpret information.

Anchoring Bias

The tendency to rely too heavily on one initial piece of information when making decisions.

Crystallized Intelligence

Knowledge and facts gained from experience and education.

Fluid Intelligence

The ability to solve new problems and think logically.

Functional Fixedness

The inability to see an object being used for anything other than its intended purpose.

Emotional Intelligence

The ability to recognize, understand, and manage one's own emotions and empathize with others.

Three Processes of Memory

Encoding, Storage, and Retrieval.

Encoding

The process of transforming information into a form that can be stored in memory.

Sensory Memory

The brief storage of sensory information such as sights and sounds during the initial stage of memory processing.

Memory Consolidation

The process of transferring information from short-term memory to long-term memory.

Explicit Memory

Memories that we can consciously recall, such as facts and personal experiences.

Implicit Memory

Memories that do not require conscious thought, including procedural memory and conditioned associations.

Procedural Memory

A type of implicit memory involving skills and actions (muscle memory).

Three R's of Memory Retrieval

Recall, Recognition, and Relearning.

Recall

Retrieving information without cues or prompts.

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information when given cues or options.

Relearning

Learning material again more quickly after previously learning it.

Four Brain Structures Involved in Memory

Amygdala, Prefrontal Cortex, Hippocampus, and Cerebellum.

Modeled Aggression

Aggressive behavior that is learned by observing others behave aggressively.

Confirmation Bias

The tendency to seek information that supports one’s existing beliefs and ignore information that contradicts them.

Longitudinal Research

A research method that studies the same group of people over a long period of time.

Cross-Sectional Research

A research method that studies different groups of people at one point in time.

Nature vs. Nurture Debate

The debate about whether behavior is influenced more by genetics (nature) or environment (nurture).

Hindsight Bias

The tendency to believe after an event has occurred that it was predictable.