Psych Chapter 9

What is motivation?

The purpose or psychological cause for an action.

How is motivation different from just instincts?

Motivation includes learned, psychological, and social drives, not just innate instincts.

What is an instinct in psychology?

A genetically endowed tendency to behave in a particular way.

What are examples of human instincts once proposed by psychologists? 

Eating, drinking, reproduction. 

What is homeostasis? Example?

The body’s tendency to maintain internal equilibrium. Too hot → sweating to cool down. Too cold → shivering to warm up. 

What is a drive?

An internal state generated by departures from physiological optimality

What does drive-reduction theory propose?

That behavior is motivated by the desire to reduce internal tension and restore homeostasis. 

What is the pain matrix? 

A distributed network of brain regions (including the amygdala) that respond to physical and socioemotional pain. 

What two components of pain does the pain matrix underlie?

Sensory (physical) and emotional (feeling) components.

What do pain signals provide?

Specific info about what is happening to the body.

Why do we sometimes respond to pain without conscious awareness?

B/c reflexes allow immediate responses for survival.

What is a reflex arc? 

A pathway where sensory input goes into the spinal cord, which directly triggers motor output before the brain processes it.

What motivates humans beyond drives?

External incentives and rewards.

What are incentives?

Positive goals that we seek to achieve.

What is an intrinsic reward? 

Pleasure from the activity itself (e.g., reading for enjoyment).

What is an extrinsic reward?

Rewards from outside the activity (e.g., money, grades).

How does anticipating pleasure differ from experiencing it?

Anticipation motivates us to seek rewards, while receiving pleasure is the hedonic experience itself. 

What did LaLumiere’s lab study?

Neural mechanisms of addiction related to reward and pleasure.

Why are we motivated to eat?

To convert food into energy for the body.

What are orexigenic signals?

Signals that promote hunger.

What are anorexigenic signals?

Signals that suppress hunger.

What is a body weight set point?

The weight an organism tends to maintain despite dietary changes.

What is metabolic rate? 

The speed at which the body uses energy.

What is anorexia nervosa?

Eating disorder characterized by severe restriction of food intake, intense fear of gaining weight, distorted body image, and dangerously low body weight. 

What is bulimia nervosa? 

Eating disorder characterized by cycles of binge eating followed by compensatory behaviors such as vomiting, excessive exercise, or misuse of laxatives. 

What is binge-eating disorder (BED)? 

Eating disorder involving recurrent episodes of eating large amounts of food quickly, often to the point of discomfort, without compensatory behaviors.

What does the glycostatic hypothesis propose?

That hunger is regulated by monitoring and adjusting blood glucose levels.

What does the lipostatic hypothesis propose?

That adipose (fat) tissue plays a role in long-term hunger regulation.

Are the glucostatic and lipostatic hypotheses mutually exclusive?

No, both may play roles in hunger regulation. 

What is dual-center theory?

Proposes that the lateral hypothalamus signals hunger (“go center”) and the ventromedial hypothalamus signals satiety (“off center”).

What is cholecystokinin (CCK)?

A protein released from the intestinal tract that signals fullness.

What is neuropeptide Y (NPY)?

A hypothalamic signal that promotes hunger.

What are adipose cells?

Fat cells that store energy in the form of fatty acids. What

What happens when energy reserves are exhausted?

Fatty acids are drained from adipose cells, converted to glucose, and used for energy. 

What is leptin? 

A hormone that signals energy sufficiency, reducing appetite. 

Where does leptin come from?

Fat cells and the liver.

What is ghrelin?

A hormone released by the stomach that signals hunger.

Where does ghrelin act in the brain?

On the hypothalamus to trigger eating behavior.

What is libido?

Sexual interest or drive in humans.

What is estrus? 

A female mammal’s period of sexual receptivity, mediated by estrogen. 

How does human female sexuality differ from estrus cycles?

Human female sexual interest is not strictly tied to the menstrual cycle.

What trend occurs around ovulation in women?

Sexual desire and activity often increase during mid-cycle ovulation.

What is the motive to belong?

The strong need to form and maintain social connections.

How does loneliness affect health?

It predicts depression and has negative effects on physical health. 

What is the motive to achieve?

The drive to succeed and accomplish goals.

What is performance orientation?

A stance focusing on performing well and looking smart.

What is avoidance motivation?

Avoiding failure by not engaging in unfamiliar challenges.

What is mastery orientation?

Focusing on learning and improving skills.

What is approach motivation? 

Belief in learning and growth; seeking out challenges. 

Which mindset is associated with approach motivation? 

Growth mindset.

What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs?

A theory that human needs are organized from basic survival needs to higher-level psychological and self-actualization needs.

What must happen before pursuing higher-level needs?

Lower-level needs must first be satisfied.

What is emotion?

Coordinated behaviors, feelings, and physiological changes triggered by goal-relevant situations.

What are the six universal emotions identified by Ekman?

Happiness, sadness, fear, anger, surprise, disgust.

What additional emotion is sometimes considered universal?

Contempt

What are display rules?

Cultural norms that dictate how and when emotions should be expressed.

What does cross-cultural research show about emotional expression?

Basic emotions are universal, but display rules vary across cultures. 

What is the discrete emotions approach? 

Emotions are distinct, qualitatively different states. 

What ist he dimensional approach to emotions?

Emotions vary along continuous dimensions like pleasantness and activation

What does the James-Lange theory state?

Emotions result from interpreting physiological changes (body → emotion).

What does the Cannon-Bard theory state?

Emotions and physiological responses occur simultaneously.

What does the Schachter-Singer (two-factor) theory state?

Emotions are the brain’s interpretation of physiological arousal in context.

What was demonstrated in the Schachter-Singer experiment? 

Participants given epinephrine interpreted arousal different depending on the situation.

What is affective neuroscience?

The study of brain activity patterns associated with different emotions.

What is self-control? 

Effort to modify automatic or default responses in a situation. 

What is willpower?

The ability to engage in self-control over time.

What is delay of gratification?

Resisting short-term rewards in favor of long-term benefits.

What classic experiment studied delay of gratification?

The Marshmallow Test.