BN5.002 Language of Anatomy and Levels of Organization

Flashcards covering key terms, tissue types, organ systems, skin layers, musculoskeletal concepts, and cardiovascular/respiratory functions from BN5.002.

What is anatomy?

The study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts, as well as their relationships with one another.

What is physiology?

The study of how the body and its parts work or function.

What is the definition and typical pH range of an acid?

A substance that releases hydrogen ions ($H^+$) in solution; a proton donor with a pH less than $7$.

What is the definition and typical pH range of a base?

A substance that accepts hydrogen ions or releases hydroxide ions ($OH^-$) in solution; a proton acceptor with a pH greater than $7$.

What is pH, and what is the normal range for human blood pH?

pH measures the hydrogen ion concentration in a solution on a scale from $0$ to $14$. Normal blood pH is $7.35\text{--}7.45$.

What is an enzyme?

A biological catalyst (usually a protein) that speeds up chemical reactions without being consumed in the process.

What defines the standard anatomical position?

Standing erect, facing forward, feet parallel and flat on the floor, arms hanging at the sides with palms facing forward (supinated).

What do the directional terms Superior (Cranial) and Inferior (Caudal) mean?

Superior means toward the head or upper body; Inferior means away from the head or toward the lower body.

What do the directional terms Proximal and Distal mean?

Proximal means closer to the origin of the body part or point of attachment of a limb; Distal means farther from the origin of a body part or point of attachment of a limb.

How do Sagittal, Frontal, and Transverse planes divide the body?

Sagittal cuts longitudinally into right and left portions; Frontal (Coronal) cuts longitudinally into anterior and posterior portions; Transverse (Cross-section) cuts horizontally into superior and inferior portions.

What sub-cavities are contained within the dorsal body cavity?

The cranial cavity (enclosing the brain within the skull) and the vertebral/spinal cavity (running within the vertebral column and enclosing the spinal cord).

What sub-cavities are contained within the ventral body cavity?

The thoracic cavity (superior cavity containing lungs and heart, separated by the diaphragm) and the abdominopelvic cavity (containing stomach, liver, intestines, reproductive organs, bladder, and rectum).

What are the core differences in composition between organic and inorganic compounds?

Organic compounds contain carbon and hydrogen and are large, complex covalent molecules. Inorganic compounds generally lack carbon (except simple oxides like $CO_2$) and are small, simpler molecules.

What are the six levels of structural organization in the human body from simplest to most complex?

1. Chemical Level
2. Cellular Level
3. Tissue Level
4. Organ Level
5. Organ System Level
6. Organismal Level

What four primary elements make up approximately $96\%$ of human body mass?

Oxygen ($O$, ~$65\%$), Carbon ($C$, ~$18.5\%$), Hydrogen ($H$, ~$9.5\%$), and Nitrogen ($N$, ~$3.2\%$).

What is an electrolyte?

An ionic compound that dissociates into ions when dissolved in water, capable of conducting electric current (e.g., $Na^+$, $K^+$, $Ca^{2+}$, $Cl^-$).

What is the primary function of ATP in cells?

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) acts as the primary energy currency of cells, storing chemical energy released during cellular respiration.

What are the functions of Mitochondria, Ribosomes, and the Golgi Apparatus?

Mitochondria produce ATP (powerhouse of the cell); Ribosomes are sites of protein synthesis; Golgi Apparatus packages, modifies, and sorts proteins for delivery.

What is the structural and functional difference between Rough ER and Smooth ER?

Rough ER is studded with ribosomes and folds/modifies proteins; Smooth ER lacks ribosomes and synthesizes lipids/steroids and performs detoxification.

What are the four main tissue types in the human body?

Epithelial Tissue, Connective Tissue, Muscle Tissue, and Nervous Tissue.

What are the primary functions of Epithelial Tissue?

Protection, absorption, filtration, and secretion; it covers body surfaces and lines cavities.

What are the four major categories/subgroups of Connective Tissue?

Connective tissue proper (loose and dense), Cartilage (hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage), Bone (osseous), and Blood.

What are the four body membranes and their primary characteristics or locations?

1. Cutaneous Membrane: Skin (dry keratinized stratified squamous epithelium).
2. Mucous Membranes: Line body cavities open to the exterior.
3. Serous Membranes: Line closed ventral cavities and cover internal organs.
4. Synovial Membranes: Connective tissue membranes that line joint cavities.

Which organ system is responsible for hematopoiesis (blood cell formation) and mineral storage?

The Skeletal System.

How do the Nervous System and Endocrine System differ in their control mechanisms?

The Nervous System is a fast-acting control system that responds to changes by activating muscles/glands. The Endocrine System is a slow-acting control system that secretes hormones to regulate growth, reproduction, and metabolism.

What are the primary functions of the Lymphatic / Immune System?

Returns leaked fluid to blood, disposes of debris, and houses white blood cells involved in immunity.

What are the organismal survival needs listed in the text?

Nutrients, Oxygen, Water ($60\text{--}80\%$ body weight), Normal Body Temperature (~$37^\circ\text{C}$ / $98.6^\circ\text{F}$), and Appropriate Atmospheric Pressure.

What are the eight essential life processes/functions?

Maintaining Boundaries, Movement, Responsiveness (Irritability), Digestion, Metabolism, Excretion, Reproduction, and Growth.

What are the five layers of the epidermis from deepest to most superficial?

1. Stratum Basale (Germinativum)
2. Stratum Spinosum
3. Stratum Granulosum
4. Stratum Lucidum (thick skin only)
5. Stratum Corneum

What specific tissue type makes up the epidermis?

Keratinized stratified squamous epithelium.

What are the roles of keratin and melanin in the integumentary system?

Keratin provides waterproofing, mechanical strength, and protection against abrasion and pathogens. Melanin forms a protective shield over keratinocyte nuclei to protect cellular DNA from UV radiation.

What are the two distinct layers of the dermis?

The Papillary Layer (superficial $20\%$; areolar connective tissue with dermal papillae) and the Reticular Layer (deep $80\%$; dense irregular connective tissue with collagen and elastic fibers).

How do Eccrine and Apocrine sweat glands differ in secretory product and location?

Eccrine glands produce hypotonic sweat ($99\%$ water, salts, vitamin C, waste) and are abundant all over the body for thermoregulation. Apocrine glands produce sweat with fatty substances and proteins, located in axillary/anogenital areas, and function starting at puberty.

What three pigments contribute to human skin coloration?

Melanin (yellow to reddish-brown to black), Carotene (yellow-orange), and Hemoglobin (red oxygenated pigment in dermal capillaries).

What are the three structural classifications of joints and their functional mobility levels?

1. Fibrous: Joined by dense fibrous tissue; immoveable (synarthroses).
2. Cartilaginous: Joined by cartilage; slightly moveable (amphiarthroses).
3. Synovial: Separated by fluid-filled joint cavity; freely moveable (diarthroses).

What are the connective tissue wrappings of skeletal muscle from outer to inner?

1. Epimysium (surrounds entire muscle organ)
2. Perimysium (surrounds muscle fascicles)
3. Endomysium (surrounds individual muscle fibers)

What are the four functional characteristics of muscle tissue (ECEE)?

Excitability (Irritability), Contractility, Extensibility, and Elasticity.

According to the Sliding Filament Theory, what happens during muscle contraction?

Action potential triggers $Ca^{2+}$ release, which binds troponin to expose actin sites. Myosin heads bind actin forming cross-bridges. ATP drives the power stroke, sliding thin actin filaments past thick myosin filaments toward the M-line, shortening the sarcomere while myofilament length remains unchanged.

What is the primary intramuscular (IM) injection site for infants/babies and why?

Vastus lateralis (anterolateral thigh), because of well-developed muscle mass without proximity to major nerves.

What are the four phases of respiration?

1. Pulmonary Ventilation (breathing)
2. External Respiration (alveoli/blood gas exchange)
3. Transport of Respiratory Gases (via blood)
4. Internal Respiration (blood/tissue gas exchange)

How does Boyle's Law apply to pulmonary inspiration?

Pressure is inversely proportional to volume. Diaphragm and intercostal muscle contraction increases thoracic volume, dropping intrapulmonary pressure below atmospheric pressure, causing air to flow into the lungs.

What are the functions of the pleurae and pericardium?

Pleurae enclose the lungs to reduce breathing friction and hold lungs to the chest wall. Pericardium encloses the heart to protect, anchor, prevent overfilling, and reduce friction during heartbeats.

What is the biconcave disc shape of an erythrocyte suited for?

It provides a high surface area-to-volume ratio for gas exchange and allows flexibility to squeeze through narrow capillaries.

Which white blood cells belong to Granulocytes and which belong to Agranulocytes?

Granulocytes: Neutrophils, Eosinophils, Basophils. Agranulocytes: Lymphocytes, Monocytes.

What is the pathway of deoxygenated blood through the pulmonary circuit?

Superior & Inferior Vena Cava \rightarrow Right Atrium \rightarrow Tricuspid Valve \rightarrow Right Ventricle \rightarrow Pulmonary Valve \rightarrow Pulmonary Trunk / Arteries \rightarrow Lungs.

What causes the 'lub' (S1) and 'dup' (S2) heart sounds?

'Lub' (S1) is caused by turbulence from the closure of Atrioventricular (AV) valves during ventricular systole. 'Dup' (S2) is caused by turbulence from the closure of Semilunar (SL) valves during ventricular diastole.

What three mechanisms propel blood back to the heart in the low-pressure venous system?

1. Skeletal Muscle Pump (contracting muscles squeeze veins)
2. Respiratory Pump (pressure changes during breathing)
3. Venous Valves (prevent backflow of blood)

What structural feature makes capillaries uniquely suited for gas and nutrient exchange?

They are microscopic and consist of a single layer of endothelial cells (tunica intima) with a thin basement membrane.

What is the definition of blood pressure and the standard resting value for healthy adults?

Blood pressure is the force exerted by circulating blood against inner arterial walls. Standard resting adult BP is approximately $120/80\,\text{mmHg}$ (Systolic < $120\,\text{mmHg}$ and Diastolic < $80\,\text{mmHg}$).