Psych vocab 1

Hindsight bias

tendency to believe after learning an outcome that one would have foreseen it

Ex: Sport outcomes

• Confirmation Bias 

Search for information that supports our preconceptions and ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Ex: News channels that only agree with your political views

• Overconfidence 

More confident than correct - overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

Ex: People believe they are a safer driver than most but they’re not

• Peer review

evaluate a research article’s theory, originality, and accuracy

ex:

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory

Falsifiable

Possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment

• Operational Definition 

Worded statement of the exact procedure used in a research study

Replication

repeating the essence of a research study, usually w/ different situations to see if the basic finding can be reproduced

• Non-Experimental Methodology

observing and describing behavior as it naturally occurs without controlling or manipulating

• Case Study 

non - experimental technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in hopes of revealing universal principles

• Meta-Analysis 

statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion.

• Naturalistic Observation 

non - experimental technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without manipulating or controlling the situation

Survey

non-expi technique for obtaining self reported attitudes/behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of group

• Social desirability bias 

bias from people’s responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes

• Self-report bias 

bias when people report their behavior inaccurately

• Experimenter Bias

bias caused when researchers may unintentionally influence results to confirm their own beliefs

Population

all those in a group being studied (samples may be drawn) Doesn’t refer to country’s whole pop. - except for national studies

Sample

smaller group of participants chosen form the population in a study

• Sampling Bias 

flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample

• Random Sample 

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

• Convenience Sampling 

collecting research from a readily available group, like friends at school, rather than a sample that reps all students at school

• Representative Sample

created by random sampling becaus everyone in pop. has equal chance of being included in sample.

Methodology

framework, strategy, and analytical rationale behind how a research study is designed and conducted

Correlation

measure of the extent to which 2 factors vary together, and how well either factor predicts the other

• Correlation Coefficient 

statistical index of the relationship between 2 things form -1 to +1

• Directionality Problem (Correlation ≠ cause)

limitation in correlational research - statistical relationship found but impossible to determine which variable causes changes in other

• Regression Toward the Mean 

tendency for extreme or unusual scores or events to fall back (regress) towards average

Experiment

research method in which investigator manipulates one or more factors (ind variables) to observe effect on some behavior or mental process (dependent vari.) By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control other relevant factors

• Experimental Group 

in experiment, group exposed to treatment, one version of independent variable

• Control Group 

In experiment, group not exposed to treatment ; contrasts with the experimental group and serves as a comparison for evaluation of treatment’s effect

• Independent Variable(s)

in experiment - factor that is manipulated ; the variable whose effect is being studied

• Dependent Variable(s) 

the outcome that is measured; variable that maybe change when the independent variable is manipulated

• Confounding Variable/ Third Variable Problem

a factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s result

• Random Assignment 

assign participants to experimental and control groups by chance, minimize pre-existing differences between the different groups

• Single-Blind Procedure

expi. procedure - research participants are blind about whether they have received the treatment or placebo

• Double-Blind Procedure 

expi. procedure - both research participants and research staff are blind about if participants received treatment or placebo (common in drug-evaluation studies)

• Research Confederates

Secretly works for experimenter while pretending to be a regular participant to create a controlled realistic situation

Placebo

Fake treatment with no active medical ingredients

• Placebo Effect 

expi results from expectations - any effect on behavior caused by administration of an insert substance or condition which the recipient assumes is an active agent

• Quantitative Research 

Research method that relies on quantifiable, numerical data

• Qualitative Research

Research method that relies on in-depth, narrative data that are not translated into numbers

• Likert Scales  

survey method used to measure person’s attitudes, opinions, or behaviors by rating level of agreement with a series of statements

• Institutional Review Board

ethics comittee at a university or research center that reviews, approves, or rejects studies involving human participants before beginning.

• Informed Consent 

give potential participants enough info about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate

• Informed Assent 

informed consent for minors

• Protect from Harm 

part of ethic codes for participants

• Confidentiality 

not old to anyone ethic codes for participants

• Debriefing

ethic codes- post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and any deceptions, to its participants

• Measure of Central Tendency

a single score that represents a whole set of scores

Mode

Most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution - simplest measure

Mean

arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores - most familiar measure

Median

Midpoint of a data distribution - 50th percentile - middle score

• Percentile Rank 

percentage of scores that are lower than a given score

• Skewed Distribution 

representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value

• Bimodal Distribution

2 frequently occuring scores in distribution

• Measures of Variation/Variance

descriptive statistics that show how spread out or scattered a set of scores is around a central point like mode, mean or median.

Range

difference between highest and lowest scores in a distribution

• Standard Deviation 

computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score

• Normal Curve 

symmetrical, bell shape curve that describes distribution of many types of data - most scores fall near the mean and fewer lie near the extremes (also called normal distribution)

• Statistical Significance 

statistical statement of how likely it is that result occurred by chance, assuming there is no difference between the populations being studied

• Behavioral Perspective 

Behavior is the result of learning from experience

• Psychodynamic Perspective 

Behavior is the result of the unconscious mind

• Humanistic Perspective 

Behavior is motivated by the potential for healthy personal growth

• Cognitive Perspective 

Behavior is the result of mental process (thoughts, beliefs, & perceptions)

• Evolutionary Perspectives 

Behavior is the result of our motivation to survive and reproduce

• Sociocultural Perspective 

behavior is the result of situational & cultural contexts

• Biological Perspective 

Behavior is a result of physical sturctures in the Brian and body.