AP PSYCH UNIT 2 VOCAB

Prototypes

Mental images or best examples of a category.

Schemas

Mental frameworks that organize and interpret information.

Assimilation

Interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas.

Accommodation

Adjusting schemas to fit new information or experiences.

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures that guarantee a solution.

Heuristics

Simple thinking strategies that allow quick problem solving and judgments.

Representativeness heuristic

Judging the likelihood of things based on how well they match prototypes.

Availability heuristic

Estimating likelihood based on memory and ease of recall.

Mental set

The tendency to approach problems using a previously successful strategy.

Priming

The activation of certain associations in memory prior to conscious awareness.

Framing

The way an issue is presented that can influence decisions and judgments.

Gambler's fallacy

The mistaken belief that past events affect the probability of future independent events.

Sunk-cost fallacy

The tendency to continue an endeavor once an investment in money, effort, or time has been made.

Executive functions

Higher-order cognitive processes including planning, decision-making, and problem solving.

Creativity

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

Divergent thinking

Creating many possible solutions to a problem.

Convergent thinking

Attempting to find a single correct solution to a problem.

Functional fixedness

The inability to see new uses for familiar objects.

Explicit memory

Conscious, intentional recollection of information.

Episodic memory

Memory of personally experienced events.

Semantic memory

Memory of general facts and knowledge about the world.

Implicit memory

Unconscious retention of learned skills or conditioned responses.

Procedural memory

Memory for the performance of particular actions or skills.

Forgetting curve

The decline of memory retention over time.

Encoding failure

Failure to process information into memory.

Proactive interference

Older information interferes with the recall of newer information.

Prospective memory

Remembering to perform planned actions in the future.

Long-term potentiation

The strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity.

Working memory model

A model describing short-term memory as consisting of multiple components.

Primary memory system

The initial storage system for immediate information.

Working memory

The system for temporarily storing and manipulating information for cognitive tasks.

Central executive

The part of working memory that directs attention and coordinates cognitive processes.

Phonological loop

The component of working memory that processes verbal and auditory information.

Visuospatial sketchpad

The component of working memory that processes visual and spatial information.

Long-term memory

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of information.

Multi-store model

A model describing memory as consisting of sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Sensory memory

A type of memory that holds sensory information for a very short time.

Automatic processing

Unconscious encoding of information without effort.

Effortful processing

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Encoding

The process of getting information into memory.

Storage

The process of retaining encoded information over time.

Retrieval

The process of getting information out of memory.

Levels of processing model

The theory that memory retention depends on the depth of processing.

Shallow encoding

Encoding based on superficial features, such as appearance or sound.

Deep encoding

Encoding based on meaning and semantic understanding.

Mnemonic devices

Memory aids that help organize information for encoding.

Method of loci

A mnemonic technique using locations to organize and recall information.

Chunking

Organizing information into meaningful units for easier memory.

Spacing effect

The tendency for distributed study to yield better long-term retention than massed study.

Retroactive interference

New information interferes with the recall of old information.

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

The temporary inability to retrieve a word or memory while feeling it is known.

Misinformation effect

When misleading information alters a person’s memory of an event.

Memory consolidation

The process by which short-term memories are transformed into long-term memories.

Massed practice

Studying or practicing intensively in a short period of time.

Distributed practice

Studying or practicing spaced out over time for better retention.

Serial position effect

The tendency to recall the first and last items in a list best.

Primacy effect

The tendency to recall the first items in a list more effectively.

Recency effect

The tendency to recall the last items in a list more effectively.

Short-term memory

The memory system that temporarily stores a limited amount of information.

Autobiographical memory

Memory for events and experiences from one’s own life.

Retrograde amnesia

The inability to retrieve information from the past.

Anterograde amnesia

The inability to form new long-term memories.

Alzheimer's disease

A progressive disease that destroys memory and other cognitive functions.

Infantile amnesia

The inability to recall early childhood memories.

Recall

Retrieving information previously learned without cues.

Recognition

Identifying previously learned information with the help of cues.

Retrieval cues

Stimuli that aid in the recall of information.

Context-dependent memory

Improved recall when retrieval occurs in the same context as encoding.

Mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall experiences consistent with one’s current mood.

State-dependent memory

Improved recall when in the same physiological or emotional state as during encoding.

Testing effect

Enhanced memory after retrieval practice or testing.

Metacognition

Awareness and understanding of one’s own thought processes.

Source amnesia

Attributing an event or memory to the wrong source.

Constructive memory

The process of integrating new information with existing memories to form distorted or false recollections.