Cognition and Memory: Key Concepts and Brain Structures

Cognition

Acquisition, storage, transformation, and use of knowledge; everything we do, feel, and understand depends on cognition.

Representationalist Approach

Knowledge is held in memory as representations that we can operate on; uses a computer metaphor.

Embodied Cognition Approach

Cognitive processes are a means to interact with the world.

Biological Perspective

Cognitive processes are due to networks of concepts in neuronal connections.

Case Studies

Research method that studies individuals in depth to understand cognition.

Correlational Studies

Research method that examines relationships between variables but cannot determine causation.

Experimental Studies

Research method that manipulates variables to determine cause and effect.

Response Time & Accuracy

Methods to measure cognitive processing efficiency.

Neuroimaging Techniques

PET, fMRI, TMS used to study brain activity and cognition.

Subcortical Structures

Brain regions under the cortex important for basic functions and attention.

Cortex

Outer layer of the brain responsible for higher-level cognitive functions.

Lobes of the Brain

Frontal (decision-making), Parietal (sensory), Temporal (hearing/memory), Occipital (vision).

Charles Bonnet Syndrome

Visual hallucinations due to sensory deprivation.

Visual Agnosia

Impairment in object recognition despite normal vision.

Blindsight

Ability to respond to visual stimuli without consciously perceiving them.

Sensation vs. Perception

Sensation is detecting stimuli; perception is interpreting sensory input.

Visual Cortex

Area in occipital lobe responsible for processing visual information.

Auditory Cortex

Area in temporal lobe responsible for processing sounds.

Association Areas

Integrate sensory input into complex perceptions.

Top-Down Processing

Using prior knowledge, expectations, or context to interpret sensory information.

Bottom-Up Processing

Using sensory input from the environment to build perception.

Gestalt Principles

Perceptual organization rules such as closure, figure-ground, and illusory contours.

Template Matching Theory

Compares stimulus to stored templates; limited because of variability.

Feature-Analysis Theory

Compares individual features of a stimulus to memory; uses distinctive features.

Prototype Theory

Compares stimulus to an idealized example of a category.

Exemplar Model

Compares stimulus to stored specific examples (exemplars) of a category.

Feature Nets

Nodes representing features or concepts connected to process recognition; affected by frequency and recency.

Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) Model

Neural network model with connections that excite or inhibit; supports learning and pattern recognition.

Recognition by Components (RBC) Model

Structural theory analyzing objects via geons (basic shapes).

Face Recognition

Fusiform Face Area; holistic processing, composite face effect, inverted face effect.

Divided Attention

Attention spread across tasks; multitasking reduces performance.

Automaticity

Tasks become easier with practice and require little attention.

Stroop Effect

Reading is automatic; interferes with naming colors.

Selective Attention Models

Broadbent's Early Filter: filters by physical characteristics; Treisman's Attenuation: unattended info weakened but still processed; Late Selection: all info processed for meaning, selection occurs after.

Attention Networks

Dorsal: goal-directed, top-down attention; Ventral: detects unexpected stimuli, bottom-up.

Disorders of Attention

Hemineglect: ignores one side of space; Balint's Syndrome: inability to perceive multiple objects simultaneously.

Feature Integration Theory

Distributed attention detects features in parallel; focused attention binds features into objects.

Short-Term Memory (STM)

Holds info for ~18 seconds without rehearsal; susceptible to interference.

Proactive Interference

Old info interferes with new info.

Retroactive Interference

New info interferes with old info.

Release from PI

Changing category improves recall.

Working Memory Components

Phonological Loop: stores sounds (~2 sec); Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad: stores visual/spatial info; Central Executive: directs attention, decision-making; Episodic Buffer: integrates STM and LTM.

Long-Term Memory Systems

Episodic: personal experiences; Semantic: facts/general knowledge; Procedural: skills/motor programs.

Positivity Bias

Tendency, especially in older adults, to remember negative events more positively over time.

State-Dependent Learning

Memory better when internal state at retrieval matches encoding.

Encoding Specificity Principle

Memory improves when context at retrieval matches encoding.

Spaced vs. Massed Practice

Spaced improves long-term retention; massed (cramming) does not.

Transfer-Appropriate Processing

Memory is better when encoding matches type of retrieval.

Explicit Memory

Conscious recall of facts/events.

Implicit Memory

Unconscious memory, skills, priming.

Levels of Processing

Deep (meaning) > Moderate > Shallow (appearance/sound).

Testing Effect

Retrieval practice improves memory more than rereading.

Mood-Congruent Memory

Better recall for info matching current mood.

Pollyanna Principle

Positive info is remembered better than negative.

Transience

Memory fades over time.

Source Misattribution

Misremembering origin of a memory.

Suggestibility

Memory influenced by external suggestions.

Bias

Memory distorted by current beliefs/attitudes.

Malleability

Memory is flexible and reconstructive.

Autobiographical Memory

Memory of personal life events; often positively biased.

Flashbulb Memories

Highly vivid, emotional, long-lasting; high confidence does not guarantee accuracy.

Central vs Peripheral Details

Central = key details remembered more accurately; peripheral = minor details often forgotten.

Eyewitness Memory Factors

Stress, inattention, surprise, weapon focus, change blindness can reduce accuracy.

Loftus & Palmer Studies

Leading questions can alter memory of events.

Schemas

General knowledge structures for understanding situations.

Scripts

Sequence of events associated with familiar activities.

Tip-of-the-Tongue (TOT) Phenomenon

Feeling of knowing without being able to retrieve; caused by weak semantic-phonological connections.

Semantic Memory Categorization

Concepts organized by similarity; basic-level categories are most useful.

Spreading Activation Model

Concepts represented as nodes; activation spreads along connections.

Exemplar vs Prototype Models

Exemplar = specific examples stored; Prototype = average/ideal example stored.

Face Recognition Specialization

Holistic processing; fusiform face area.

Top-Down vs Bottom-Up Processing in Perception

Both work together; top-down uses memory and expectations, bottom-up uses sensory input.

Visual System Pathways

Ventral ("what"), Dorsal ("where/how"), V4 (object/scene recognition), IT (face recognition).

Receptor Cells in Retina

Rods = dim light; Cones = bright light, color, detail.

LGN

Relays visual info, integrates spatial and temporal data.