AP PSYCH☠️

Bias

A system that distorts thinking, judgement, or research in a way that is unfair.

Hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it.

I-knew-it-all-phenomenon

Overconfidence

The tendency to think we know more than we do. Exaggerate the correctness of our beliefs

Perceives patterns in random events

Perceiving random events to predict our outcomes

Key elements of scientific attitude

Curiosity+skepticism+humility

Skepticism

Shifting reality from fantasy and demanding evidence.

Curiously

Does it work?

Asking questions

Humility

Accepting incorrect predictions, be humble

Critical thinking

Examining, appraising, finding motive, evaluating evidence, and assessing conclusion

Requires scientific attitude

Peer reviewers

Scientific experts who evaluate a research article’s theory, originality, and accuracy

Theory

An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organizes observations and predicts behaviours or events.

(A hunch)

Hypothesis

A testable prediction, often implied by a theory.

If ….., then…..

Falsifiable

The possibility that an idea, hypothesis, or theory can be disproven by observation or experiment.

Operational definition

A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study.

Replication

Repeating the essence of a research study, usually with participants in different situations, to see wether the basic finding can be reproduced.

Case study

individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles.

Naturalistic observation

observing and recording behaviour in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation.

Survey

A non-experimental technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviours of a particular group.

Social desirability bias

Bias from people’s responding in ways they presume a researcher expects or wishes.

Self-report bias

Bias when people report their behaviour inaccurately.

Sampling bias

A flawed sampling process that produces an unrepresentative sample.

Random sample

A sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion.

Population

All those in a group being studied, from which random samples may be drawn.

Correlation

A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together,and thus of how well either factor predicts the

other

Basically two similar trends that follow the same graph.

Correlation coefficient

A statistical index of the relationship between 2 variables (from -1.00 +1.00)

Variable

Anything that can varyand is feasible and ethical to measure.

Scatterplot

A graphed cluster of dots, eachof which represents the value of two variables

illusory correlation

perceiving a relationship where non exists, or perceiving a stronger- than -actual relationship

Regression toward the mean

the tendency for extreme/ unusual scores or events to fall back towards the average

Experiment

A research method in which an investigator manipulates one or more factors to observe the effect on some behaviour or mental process.

Experimental group

the group exposed to the treatment in an experiment, to one version of the independent variable.

Control group

the group not exposed to the treatment; contrasts with the experimental group and sens as a comparison for evaluating the effect of the treatment

Random assignment

Assigning participants to experimental group by chance, to maximize pre-existing differences between the different group.

single-blind procedure

experiment where participants are ignorant (blind) about whether they have recieved the treatment or the placebo.

double-blind procedure

experiment where both participants and research staff are ignorant (blind) about whether the participants have received the treatment or the placebo.

Placebo [phun- SEE-bo]

experimental results caused by expect a then alone; any effect on behavior caused by the administration of an inert substance orcondition, which the recipeat assumes is an active agent.

Independent variable

the factor that is manipulated in an experiment; the variable whose effect is bing studied.

Confounding Variable

the factor that is being studied in an experiment, and might influence a study's results.

Experimenter bias

Bias caused when researchers may un intentionally influence re sults to confirm their own beliefs.

Dependant variable

The outcome that is measured in an experiment; the variable that may change who the independant variable is manipulated.

Quantitative research

A research method that relies on numerical data.

Numbers

Validity

The extent to which a test or experiment measur es or predicts what it is supposed to.

Qualitative research

A research method that relies on in depth, narrative data, not numbers.

Informed consent

Giving potential participants enough info about a study to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate.

Debriefing

The post experimental explanation of a study, including its purpose and and deceptions, to its participants.

Descriptive statistics

Numerical data used to describe/measure characteristics of a group.

Histogram

A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.

Mode

The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distributions.

Mean

The arithmetic average of distribution

Add everything up, divide by number of things.

Median

The middle score in a distribution

Percentile rank

The percentage of scores that are lower than a given score.

Skewed distribution

A representation of scores that lack symmetry around their average value.

Range

The difference between the highest and the lowest scores in a distribution.

Standard deviation

A computed measure of how much scores vary around the mean score.

Normal curve

A symmetrical, bell shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data.

Inferential statistics

Numerical data that allows one to generalize- to infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population.

Meta-analysis

A statistical procedure for analyzing the results of multiple studies to reach an overall conclusion.

Statistical significance

A statistical statement of how likely it is that a result occurred by chance, assuming there’s no difference between the population being studied.

Effect size

The strength of the relationship between two variables. The larger the effect size, the more one variable can be explained by the other.