Unit 2 Meanings in Life

Susan Wolf's perspective on creating a meaningful life

1. If we are actively engaged in our own lives

2. Have a "project" (or projects) (maximally defined)

3. That our hearts are invested in

4. Which at least some group of other people would agree is worthwhile/has positive value (i.e., we're not the only person who sees value in it)

5. And it succeeds in some way, large or small

Then we (likely) have a meaningful life

Arguments for Determinism

1. In ancient times, justified by gods or fate; 2. In modern times, can be religiously based as with Calvinist Christianity & predestination or orthodox Islam; 3. Scientific/materialist perspective that views us as governed by cause & effect and brain events we cannot control.

Arguments against Determinism, non-supernatural

1. Complete determinism is a theory w/some evidence against it in quantum mechanics; 2. Consistency of the internal experience/feeling of free will across eons of humanity should count as some evidence of free will 3. When we 'act out of character' we show we are not only a product of causation and genetics.

Supernatural arguments against Determinism

1. Religiously based: God suspends causation in order to preserve free will and accountability

2. Dualism: Consciousness and body are two different substances. Consciousness (mind) possesses properties that can act upon matter (the brain).

Hard determinism

What we will do is determined by a chain of prior causes, genetics and chemical events in the brain. People can be held accountable (ex: put dangerous people in prison) but not morally responsible for the things they do. Many scientists and some religious groups endorse this view.

Compatibilists/Soft determinists

Believe it's true that what we do is determined, but that we are still morally responsible. We act according to our desires, beliefs, and intentions. It doesn't matter that they were determined by prior causes, genetics or chemical events in the brain. We are morally responsible because we did what we felt we wanted to do. Many scientists and some religious groups endorse this view.

Agent-centered Libertarians

Our range of responses are shaped by brain chemistry, experiences, etc., but over time we can use the freedom in the present moment to work on ourselves. Our levels of moral responsibility or accountability may vary, based on our situation and our opportunities to learn to improve ourselves. Buddhists and Stoics typically endorse this view.

Indeterminists/Philosophical Libertarians

Our decisions are freely made and not determined. We are fully morally responsible and accountable for what we do. Existentialists typically endorse this view.

Quantum mechanics

Submolecular objects exist In a haze of probability, are affected by being observed, and behave randomly, coming in and out of existence. Usually used to justify indeterminism/philosophical libertarianism, since this suggests that not everything is shaped by prior causes. However, hard determinists counter argue that randomness is not "free," and that larger objects behave as expected in physics.

(Atheist) Existentialism

Emphasizes freedom, choice, action and the search for meaning in an indifferent universe. This variant has three main thinkers, Jean-Paul Sartre, Albert Camus & Simone de Beauvoir. It begins in the context of opposition to the rise of fascism and authoritarianism during WWII and develops further during the post WWII anti-colonisation and liberation movements

Existence precedes essence

Quote from Sartre expressing the human experience of being 'thrown' into the world, undefined, with no a priori meaning and no purpose or values to guide us.

Forlornness

Also referred to as existentialist anxiety, a concept that describes a common response to truly understanding our freedom, our responsibility, and our mortality.

Bad Faith

An existentialist concept for when we try to deny our freedom and pretend our options are more limited than they truly are.

Existentialist ethics

We must take full responsibility for the effects of our choices on others' ability to choose.

Existentialism on philosophical systems

Sets of ideas or arguments that claim to say what it is to be human (like those from Plato & Aristotle) are simply wrong, because existence precedes essence.

Context for Existentialism

Opposition to the rise of fascism and authoritarianism during WWII; also the post WWII movements to free parts of the world that had been colonized.

Context for the development of Stoicism

The instability of the post-Alexandrian ancient Greek world and the dangers of the immense political power and challenges of corruption in the Roman empire.

Ancient Stoic perspective on Logos

Pantheistic worldview where nature is a single slowly awakening organism of which we are a small part. We are responsible to fulfil the roles the universe needs us to play well as we can. Like a part of the body, sometimes we may need to accept that we will end up being the "foot in the mud," or the knee that gets scraped as the universe develops and progresses.

Modern Stoic view on the human place in nature

We are all in a web of cause and effect on which we should seek to have a positive influence. We can choose many of the roles we play in life, but some unfortunate events or experiences may be inescapable. Those we must learn to accept.

Stoic virtues

Wisdom, showing good practical judgement when responding to people & situations; Courage in the face of difficulty; Justice, treating others fairly, respectfully, creating a society in which this is possible, Temperance/Moderation not allowing yourself to be swept up by negative emotions, cravings, and cosmopolitanism.

Cosmopolitanism

The Stoic belief that all people are fundamentally equal and belong to a shared community as part of the universe--a brotherhood and sisterhood of all humankind.

Dichotomy of Control

The Stoic idea that to reach ataraxia we must recognize the difference between what we can and can't control.. We can only control our internal mental actions, our judgements & our actions in the world. We can seek to positively influence matters beyond this, but must accept that we cannot control the outcomes.

Ataraxia

For Stoics, tranquility, mental peace. For Epicureans, similar, but more of an inner ease.

Indifferents

A Stoic concept related to things that we mistakenly think we need to be happy. It's reasonable to prefer good health to illness, having enough resources to living in poverty, and a good reputation over a poor one, but we should never sacrifice virtue in an attempt to achieve them. They are not essential for ataraxia, and they are not always in our control.

3 Movements of an Emotion

Part of the Stoic approach. The first movement is instinctual/physical & not something we control. We shouldn't blame ourselves for this, but should just seek to identify the feeling. Next is our choice of assent, where we pause, reframe, and/or bring virtues to mind. After we work with the feeling rationally, we experience the final emotion. We can embrace positive or healthy emotions. We should decline assent to: resentment, bitterness, jealousy, obsession, useless anxiety, craving, rage.

Points both schools of Hedonism agree upon

Pleasure is the only thing that is intrinsically valuable (valuable in and of itself). Displeasure or pain is intrinsically bad.

Cyrenaic Hedonism

Claims we should use rationality to maximize our experiences of intense, immediate physical pleasure, which is better than mental pleasures. Views immediate pleasure as preferable to future pleasure. Disagrees with Plato that there are higher and lower pleasures. Cautions against becoming enslaved to any one particular pleasure. Aristippus was clear that this life philosophy wouldn't be achievable for all people, since it requires wealth. Founded by Aristippus in ancient Greece and known only through its critics.

Epicurean Hedonism

Views pleasure as the highest good, but minimizing pain and irritation is more important than maximizing fleeting pleasures. Avoid physical harm, disordered desires (unnatural or difficult to satisfy), political and/or public life, and irrational fears (especially of gods and death)

Seek physical health, static pleasures, simple, easily achieved desires, a modest and secure life, close friendships, philosophical reflection & hobbies in order to achieve enduring happiness. Founded by Epicurus in ancient Greece.

Kinetic Pleasure

Epicurean concept of enjoyment that comes from actions, which tends to be short-lived and momentary. Nice, but not the preferred form of pleasure for Epicureans.

Static Pleasure

Epicurean concept for the state of tranquility achieved in the absence of physical pain & mental distress. A sustained, continuous sensation, seen by Epicureans as the ultimate goal of a good life.

Hedonic Adaptation (Hedonic Treadmill)

When we become accustomed to a stimulus like a specific material pleasure. That can deaden the pleasure we take from it, & lead to us sacrificing our lives chasing further cravings and more luxuries. A problem Epicurus identified and Epicurean hedonists seek to avoid by focusing on simple, easily achievable desires that provide static pleasure.

Natural desires

An Epicurean concept that includes desires that come from our body and social nature and are needed for basic survival and well-being, like the need for food, shelter, and social interaction. These desires have natural limits and are easily satisfied.

Vain desires

An Epicurean concept describing our desire for things like power, wealth, fame, and luxuries. These desires are created by social conditioning (acculturation) and false beliefs about what's needed for happiness. They also often have no natural limits and are difficult to satisfy.

Asceticism

Severe self discipline and denial, usually for religious reasons. Often involves eating very little in order to achieve spiritual insights. An important concept in Buddhism, because the Buddha rejects this for the "middle way," a balanced approach that is neither luxurious nor extremely self denying.

Basic Facts in the founding of Buddhism

Philosophical system first developed by Siddhartha Gautama, a prince in ancient Nepal. Sheltered from suffering due to a prophecy, Gautama later encountered the "Four Sights" (old age, sickness, death, and a holy man), which inspired him to seek a solution to human suffering. After years of ascetic practice, he gave it up, ate, meditated under a Bodhi tree, and achieved enlightenment—becoming the Buddha, or "Awakened One." He spent the rest of his life teaching the Dharma. Buddhism rejects castes, teaches that all people are equal, and holds that everyone possesses the potential for enlightenment.

Buddhist perspective on God/gods/origins

Non-theistic, considering the question irrelevant to the goal of freedom from suffering in this life (Samsara). Instead of asking "Where does everything come from?" or "Who/what created the universe," focuses on the practical questions of "Why do we suffer, and how can we stop suffering?"

Dukkha

The core problem Buddhism addresses. It has a range of meanings from suffering (pain, loss) to annoyance or dissatisfaction. The term highlights the our inability to find lasting satisfaction in anything that is impermanent.

Impermanence

A key idea in Buddhist philosophy. Deeply understanding this concept is viewed as a freeing insight, helping us to let go of attachments and impossible expectations. From a Buddhist perspective, clinging to the illusion of permanence helps create suffering.

The Four Noble Truths

Given by the Buddha in the form of a diagnosis and a prescription:

Life contains suffering (dukkah)

Craving and attachment are the cause of suffering

There is a way to end suffering (dukkah)

The Eightfold path leads to the cessation (ending) of suffering (dukkah)

The Eightfold Path

The method of ending suffering in Buddhism. Involves developing Wisdom with: 1. Right View (of reality) & 2. Right Intention, seeking to act with Virtue/good ethics, including: 3. Right Speech, 4. Right Actions and 5. Right Livelihood, and then working to develop mental discipline in Meditation with: 6. Right Effort, 7. Right Mindfulness and 8. Right Concentration.

Interbeing

A Buddhist concept that everything exists only in relationship with everything else--nothing exists "on its own." All things are mutually dependent in some way. Understanding this clarifies the reality of impermanence and creates greater compassion for all beings.

Nirvana/Nibbana (in life vs after)

In life: psychological and ethical transformation that frees us from many desires, attachments and from defensive/reactive patterns of behavior, releasing us from (most) suffering.

After death: for the enlightened, the final release from the cycle of rebirth (samsara) and from all suffering.

Role/Purpose of Meditation

Trains the mind to observe thoughts without clinging or attachment. Develops focused attention and insight into impermanence, suffering and the emptiness of the self (not-self). A way to connect with our inner observer and develop wisdom and compassion. Not an attempt to "escape."

Buddhist Perspective on the Self

We do not have a permanent, unchanging self. Instead, the "self" is a bundle of changing physical and mental processes Recognizing this offers freedom from ego-driven suffering