Approaches

Wilhelm Wundt’s role

-focus on understanding basic component parts of psychological processes like perception, sensation

-’father of psychology’

-first textbook of psychology in 1874

-first lab in Leipzig, 1879

-introspection

Introspection

observing and examining own concious thoughts in response to an experience

Stages of introspection

1. trained introspectors to carefully observe and report concious experiences

2. controlled lab setting: stimuli like lights, sounds, tastes presented to introspectors

3. observation and reporting: experiences reported as accurately and consitently as possible

4. objective reporting: mental processes reported without own interpretation or bias

evaluating introspection

-introspection had previously been used by philosophers who didn’t set any controls

-Wundt used several controls to enhance reliability

-consistent lab conditions, using the same stimuli and tasks

-minimises external influences, facilitates precise measurement of mental processes

-laid groundwork for psych as a scientific discipline which influenced subsequent research methods

evaluating introspection

-can be argued that introspection not a truly scientific method

-participant observations subject to bias due to reliancy on participants revealing own private experiences

-different introspectors may interpret same experience differently

-results not reliably reproduced—> seen as unreliable

evaluating introspection

-not accessible for all mental processes

-unconcious processes cannot be directly introspected

-Nisbett and Wilson: motivations for buying products not conciously aware

-problematic in study of attitudes

• someone may be implicitly misogynist which influences behaviour, but these attitudes exist outside concious awareness

• self reports would not uncover

evaluating introspection

-has been influential throughout psychology

-introspection has been used to make factors like happiness a measurable phenomena

-Wundt’s introduction of scientific method in psych paved the way for controlled empirical research

-inspired use of introspection in complex processes like learning

Empirical method

-data gathered objectively so preconceptions can’t influence the data

-measuring quantitative details so patterns can be established

-direct observations of measurable variables

Watson’s beliefs

-critical of introspection’s private focus on mental processes

-a truly scientific psychology should restrict itself to studying things that are observable and measurable

lab experiments

-allow complete control of variables

-researcher can be confident it’s only the IV impacting DV

-standardised, replicable methods

cognitive revolution

-1960s

-study of mental processes now seen as legitimate, scientific area within psych

-inferences can be made based on lab tests

cognitive neuroscience

combined advancements in tech to investigate psychological processes

behaviourist approach

1. humans are born tabula rasa/blank slate

2. behaviour learnt through experience

3. only observable behaviour can be studied scientifically

4. valid to study animals

classical conditioning

-learning by association

-UCS and NS paired together

-NS becomes CS as it produces same conditioned response as the UCS

Pavlov’s dogs

-presentation of food (UCS) paired with NS (bell)

-after awhile, when NS presented alone it elicted same response as that of the UCS

-dogs would salivate when bell heard w/o presentation of food

Operant conditioning

learning through reinforcement/consequences

positive-recieving a reward for desirable behaviour

negative-removing something undesirable in return for desirable behaviour

Skinner’s Research

positive

rats placed in skinner box, as it moved around the box a lever would be knocked and a food pellet would appear

rat learned to continue pressing lever as the positive consequence of food gained. when food pellet no longer released, the rat stopped the behaviour

negative

rat subjected to unpleasant electric current, rat would knock lever as it moved around the box and this stopped the current

rats learned to go straight to lever

evaluation of behaviourism

-scientific, empirical methods

-Pavlov and Skinner both used experimental methods to control conditions and establish cause and effect

-internal validity to research, validity to behaviourist approach

evaluation of behaviourist approach

-Pavlov’s use of dogs and Skinner’s of rats is problematic and doesn’t tell us much about human behaviour

-humans have more complex processes like emotion and motivation

-evidence for the role of cognition is ignored

-behaviourist approach insufficent in fully explaining human behaviour

evaluation of behaviourist

-envionmentally determinist

-all behaviour influenced by external factors

-Skinner suggested free will an illusion

-not favoured by many as suggests individuals don’t have influence/control over own behaviour

-reduces ability to explain behaviour

evaluation of behaviourist

-significant contributions

-classical conditioning led to treatments of phobias via SD

-operant condition forms the basis of token economies, which are effective at reducing undesirable behaviour/encouraging the desirable

Social Learning Theory

-behaviour learnt through watching role models

-models provide behaviour to observe and imitate

-children pay attention to role models and encode behaviour

mediational processes

A-attention: more likely to be paid to those with status who whom we identify with

R-retention: behaviour must be stored in memory

M-motivation: vicarious/direct reinforcement

M-motor reproduction: must be physically able to perform behaviour

vicarious reinforcement

behaviour more likely to be imitated if the observer sees the role model being rewarded for the behaviour

direct reinforcement

behaviour more likely to be imitated if the observer themselves is praised/rewarded for behaviour

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study (1961)

-would children show aggressive behaviour if they saw an adult role model doing so?

-72 children split into 3 groups of 24

condition 1: children observed a video of an adult attacking an inflatable doll, kicking, punching, etc

condition 2: non aggressive

condition 3: control/no adult model

-children then taken to a room alone with the doll and filmed playing with it

-imitative agression, partially imitative and non imitative aggression recorded

Bandura-results

children who observed aggressive model showed higher levels of aggressive behaviour than those in the other two conditions

children more likely to imitate same sex models

boys physically more aggressive in all conditions

evaluation of Bandura’s research

-lab experiment, allowing for control of variables

-cause and effect can be established, enhancing validity

-standardised procedures used, replicability

-similar results have been found

evaluation of Bandura’s research

-low ecological validity

-child and unfamiliar adult role model in artifical setting, no interaction b/w adult and child

-unlike real life modelling

-impacts measured immediately, only providing a snapshot rather than long term effects

evaluation of social learning theory

-research evidence: Bandura

-findings demonstrate importance of observing role modles in behaviour and role of vicarious reinforcement and identification with model

evaluation of SLT

-provides higher level of explanation, not reductionist

-more comprehensive explanation due to role of mediational processes

-recognises that individuals are active in their processing and interpretation of observed behaviour so better than behaviourist approach

-more complete as includes role of learning and cognition

-can better explain occurence of individual differences

-some level of free will, soft determinist rather than hard.

evaluation of SLT

-underestimates role of Nature

-little reference to biological factors

-boys more aggressive than girls in Bobo doll study regardless of model

-differences may best be explained through factors like hormones (testosterone)

-doubt over SLT’s ability to fully explain all human behaviour

Evaluating SLT

-useful applications

-explains development of gender typical behaviour through observation of same sex role models in everyday life and the media.

-positive social change like legislation informing ad agencies to limit gender stereotypes in media

cognitive approach

1. behaviour can be explained via internal mental processes

2. mediational processes occur between stimulus and response

3. inferences can be made about cognitive processes when studied scientifically (lab experiments)

4. mind works similarly to computer as it inputs, stores and retrieves data

Inference

internal mental processes can’t be studied directly since they can’t be observed

they must be inferred based on directly observed behaviour.

Theoretical models

ex. multi store model

shows how an aspect of the human mind works visually

schemas

mental structure that contains knowledge based on experience

organises info, acts as a guide to behaviour

Beck’s Negative Triad

why are schemas helpful?

-help you make shortcuts when organising and interpreting information

-help us prevent being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli

when are schemas unhelpful?

-shortcuts we take could be wrong, leading to prejuidice based on stereotypes

-pay more attention to information that fits the schemas we have (attentional biases)

-misremember something because it doesn’t fit our schemas

computer models

concepts of coding and stores used to link human mind to a computer

evaluating cognitive approach

-scientific

-emergence of cog. neuroscience uses brain scanning techniques provides a biological basis for mental processes

-improves objectivity of the research, reduces reliance on making inferences

evaluating cognitive approach

-experimental research used, this lacks ecological validity

-artifical, controlled word list tasks tell us little about what can be recalled naturally.

-Loftus: EWT, watching a video of a car crash doesn’t involve the emotion that it would in real life.

-hard to generalise findings to real life

evaluating cognitive approach

-computer analogy is machine reductionist

-reducing the human mind down to a computer doesn’t consider the emotional processes that occur

-questions usefulness of computer models in explaning behaviour

evaluating cognitive approach

-useful contribution to treatment

-helped explain link between faulty thinking and mood disorders

-CBT

cognitive neuroscience evaluation

-used to show that types of memory are localised

-Clive Wearing, Tulving’s research

biological approach

1. human behaviour explained with references to biology

2. most behavior will have adaptive/evolutionary purpose

3. human behaviour explained by structure and function of human NS

4. psychology should be seen as a science and studied as such

role of evolution

-Bowlby’s attachment theories

-biological preparedness of phobias

genotype

inherited genetic makeup

phenotype

physical appearance and observable characteristics depending on genes and environment

genetic basis of behaviour

monozygotic/identical share 100% of genes

dizygotic/non identical share 50% of genes

prevalenace of OCD: Gottesman found that MZ had an 87% concordance rate and DZ had a 47%

evaluation of biological approach

-use of scientific methods

-experiments take place in highly controlled conditions, results can be replicated which improves reliability

-MRIS, biopsychological recording techniques

evaluation of biological approach

-issues with causation

-there may be a suspected relationship between brain activity and behaviour but this doesn’t evidence a causal relationship

-may be a two way relationship or third extraneous variable

-only an association can be concluded

evaluation of biological approach

-biological reductionism

-behaviour broken down into smallest component parts (genes, hormones etc.)

-useful as allows scientific investigation of isolated variables

-however may be too simplistic and we won’t fully understand behaviour without considering all potential influences

-ignores cognitive, enviro, emotional factors

evaluation of biological approach

-difficulty in investigating full influence of nature on behaviour

-higher concordance rates for identical twins, non identical twins and family members compared to those with littel/no genetic similarity are interpeted as evidence for biological influence

-however closely related individuals often experience similar environments and treated similarly, these factors not considered

-challenges validity of research

evaluation of biological approach

-significant contribution to treatment (ex. research into neurochemical imbalance led to development of treatments like SSRIS that have been effective in treating symptoms of mood disorders)

-antipsychotics

-bio. helps understand psychopathology and development of drug treatments

psychodynamic approach

1. behaviour powerfully influenced by unconcious motives

2. behaviour and feelings as adults rooted in childhood experiences

3. personality composed of three parts: ID, ego and superego

4. personality develops in stages, innate drives modified by different conflicts at different times during psychosexual development

5. psychic determinism: all behaviour has a cause/reason

role of unconcious mind

most everyday behaviours not controlled conciously but by the unconcious mind

prevents traumatic memories from entering concious via defence mechanisms

repression (as a defence mechanism)

unconcious blocking of unacceptable thoughts and impulses

the repressed thoughts still influence behaviour without the individual being aware

denial

refusal to accept reality to stop having to deal with any painful feelings that may be associated with the event

displacement

redirection of thoughts and feelings in situations where the person feels unable to express themselves in the presence of the person they should be directed towards

takes out feelings on someone else/an object

the id

animal instincts, operates according to pleasure principle

immediate gratification

the ego

mediator between id and superego

reality principle

superego

morality principle

formed around age 5

internalised state of right and wrong

punishes ego for wrongdoing via guilt

psychosexual stages

1. oral

2. anal

3. phallic

4. latency

5. genital

oral stage (1)

age: 0-1

focus of libido: mouth, tounge biting, chewing

development: weaning off breast feeding, ego develops

consequence of fixation: smoking, overeating

anal stage (2)

age: 1-3

focus of libido: anus, bowel and bladder control

development: toilet training

consequence of fixation: orderliness/messiness

phallic stage (3)

age: 3-6

focus of development: genitals, masturbation

development: oedipus/electra complex

consequence of fixation: deviancy, sexual dysfunction

latency (4)

age: 6-10

focus of libido: repression of sexual urges

development: cognitive and social development, superego develops further

consequence of fixation: none

genital (5)

age: 12+

focus of libido: genitals

development: sexual maturity

consequence of fixation: if all stages completed then sexual maturity and positive mental health achieved

oedipus complex

• In boys:

  • Desire for the mother.

  • Jealousy and rivalry toward the father.

  • Fear of punishment (e.g. castration anxiety) from the father.

• In girls (sometimes called the Electra complex):

  • Desire for the father.

  • Jealousy toward the mother.

  • Freud believed this stemmed from “penis envy.”

• Resolution occurs when the child identifies with the same-sex parent, internalizing their values and norms—important for the development of the superego.

evaluation of psychodynamic approach

-suggested new methodological procedures for gathering empirical evidence using case studies

-however, critics have suggested that it isn’t possible to make such universal claims about human nature based on studies of such a small number of individuals

-Freud’s interpretations highly subjective

-compared to other methods, lacks scientific rigour

evalution of psychodynamic approach

-doesn’t meet scientific criterion of falsifiability

-cannot be empirically tested

-unconcious=impossible to test scientifically

-more of a pseudoscience

-reduces validity and usefulness

evaluation of psychodynamic approach

-gender bias

-centred on and dominated by males/male viewpoint

-alpha bias: exaggerates differences between men and women

-femininity=failed masculinity

-patriarchal but many of Freud’s views still accepted today

evaluating psychodynamic

-psychoanalysis

-treats root cause rather than just symptoms like drug treatments

-considered forerunner to many modern day psychotherapies.

humanistic approach

1. humans have free will, each person is a rational and concious being and therefore not all behaviour is predetermined

2. all individuals are unique and have innate drive to achieve maximum potential

3. animal studies can’t be applied to humans

4. humans should be viewed as whole, not reduced to component parts

free will

people have full concious control over destiny

humans can make significant personal choices over behaviour

Maslow’s Heirarchy of Needs

each level must be fulfilled before being able to move to the next

Carl Rogers

self: how we percieve ourselves as a person

positive regard: from others

a feeling of self worth form in childhood and via relationships with others

the closer our self concept and ideal self, the greater our mental health and feelings of self worth

congruence

similarity to how someone views themselves and their ideal self leads to a state of congruence

most people experience some degree of incongruence

conditions of worth

unconditional love/acceptance: the person is accepted for who they are

conditional: only accepted if others do what they want them to

conditions of worth come from the beliefs/expectancies from others that are placed on them, they believe they have to be in place if they are to be accepted by others

client centred therapy

non directive approach, therapist is the guide

therapist displays empathy and unconditional positive regard and client encouraged to discover own solutions in a supportive environment

evaluation of humanistic approach

-research support for conditions of worth

-Harter et al (1996): teenagers who feel that they must fulfil certain conditions to gain parental approval often end up not liking themselves and are more likely to develop depression

evaluation of humanistic approach

-concepts are vauge and can’t be measured scientifically

-self actualisation

-without experimental evidence, evaluation of a theory or a therapies’ effectiveness is difficult and it is impossible to verify the validity of humanistic psychology.

-not objective, challenging scientific methods

evaluation of humanistic approach

-cultural bias

-individual freedom, autonomy and personal growth associated with western individualist cultures

-collectivist cultures put needs of group first

-Nevis (1983): in China, belongingness valued over physiological needs

-product of cultural context it was developed in.

evaluation of humanist approach

-little real world application compared to other approaches

-some however argue that it has revolutionised counselling techniques

-eg. client centred therapy

Elliott (2002): signifciant improvement in clients who did counselling/cct versus other methods