AP psych midtrm

psychology AP psych

case study

In-depth examination of an individual or small group over an extended period, often using a variety of data sources such as interviews, observations, and psychological tests.

confounding variable

A variable other than the independent variable that could potentially influence the dependent variable, leading to inaccurate interpretations of the results.

control group

The group in an experiment that does not receive the treatment or intervention, used for comparison with the experimental group.

correlation

A statistical measure of the relationship between two variables, indicating how they change together. However, correlation does not imply causation.

correlation coefficient

A numerical value between -1 and +1 that represents the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables.

critical thinking

The objective analysis and evaluation of an issue to form a judgment. It involves questioning assumptions, examining evidence, and considering alternative perspectives.

debriefing

The process of providing participants with information about the purpose, procedures, and results of a research study after their participation, especially if deception was used.

dependent variable

The variable that is measured or observed in an experiment and is expected to change as a result of the manipulation of the independent variable.

descriptive statistics

Statistical techniques used to summarize and describe the characteristics or properties of a dataset, such as measures of central tendency and variability.

double-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which both the participants and the researchers involved are unaware of who is assigned to the experimental or control group, reducing bias.

effect size

A measure of the strength or magnitude of the relationship between variables or the magnitude of a treatment effect, independent of sample size.

experiment

A research method in which one or more variables are manipulated to observe the effect on another variable, while controlling for extraneous factors.

experimental group

The group in an experiment that is exposed to the treatment or intervention being studied.

experimenter bias

The influence of the researcher's expectations or beliefs on the outcomes of an experiment, leading to unintentional bias in data collection or interpretation.

falsifiability

The principle that for a hypothesis or theory to be considered scientific, it must be possible to conceive of evidence that would prove it false.

hindsight bias

The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it. It's often referred to as the "I knew it all along" phenomenon.

histogram

A graphical representation of the distribution of numerical data, where the data is divided into intervals (bins) and the height of each bar represents the frequency or count of data points within each interval.

hypotheses

Testable predictions or educated guesses about the relationship between two or more variables, typically formulated as statements.

illusory correlation

The perception of a relationship between two variables when no such relationship exists, or the perceived relationship is weaker than it appears.

independent variable

The variable that is manipulated or controlled by the researcher in an experiment to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

inferential statistics

Statistical techniques used to make inferences or predictions about a population based on sample data, including hypothesis testing and estimation.

informed consent

The ethical principle requiring that participants in a research study are fully informed about the nature, purpose, risks, and benefits of participation before agreeing to take part.

mean

The average of a set of values, calculated by summing all values and dividing by the number of values.

median

The middle value in a dataset when the values are arranged in ascending or descending order. If there is an even number of values, the median is the average of the two middle values.

meta-analysis

A statistical technique for combining the findings from multiple studies on a particular topic to determine overall trends or effects.

mode

The most frequently occurring value in a dataset.

naturalistic oberservation

Observation of behavior in its natural context without interference or manipulation by the researcher.

normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that represents the distribution of scores in a population, with the mean, median, and mode all located at the center.

operational definitions

Precise descriptions of how variables in a study will be manipulated or measured. They specify the procedures used to define and measure concepts.

peer reviews

The evaluation of scientific, academic, or professional work by others in the same field to ensure its quality and validity before publication or presentation.

percentile rank

The percentage of scores in a distribution that are equal to or below a particular score.

placebo

An inactive substance or treatment that resembles the experimental treatment, used in research to control for the psychological effects of receiving treatment.

placebo effect

The phenomenon where individuals experience a change in their condition or behavior after receiving a placebo, due to their belief in the effectiveness of the treatment.

population

The entire group of individuals or cases that researchers are interested in studying and to which they intend to generalize their findings.

qualitative research

Research that focuses on gathering and analyzing non-numerical data, such as observations, interviews, or textual analysis, to understand meanings, experiences, or perspectives.

quantitative research

Research that focuses on gathering and analyzing numerical data to understand relationships, patterns, or trends.

random assignment

The process of assigning participants to experimental or control groups in a way that each individual has an equal chance of being placed in any group, reducing the likelihood of bias.

random sample

A sample in which every member of the population has an equal chance of being selected to participate in the study, increasing the generalizability of the findings.

range

The difference between the highest and lowest values in a dataset, representing the spread or dispersion of the data.

regression toward the mean

The tendency for extreme or unusual scores on a variable to move closer to the average or mean when measured again.

replicate

To repeat a research study or experiment to determine if the findings can be reliably reproduced.

sampling bias

A bias in which a sample is not representative of the population from which it is drawn, leading to inaccurate or ungeneralizable results.

scatterplot

A graphical representation of the relationship between two variables, where each data point represents an individual's score on both variables.

self-report bias

Inaccuracies or distortions in responses to surveys or questionnaires due to factors such as social desirability, memory recall, or misunderstanding of questions.

single-blind procedure

An experimental procedure in which either the participants or the researchers involved are unaware of who is assigned to the experimental or control group.

skewed distribution

A distribution of data in which the scores cluster more towards one end (positive skew) or the other end (negative skew) of the range, rather than being evenly distributed.

social desirability bias

The tendency for people to respond in a manner that they believe is socially acceptable or desirable, rather than providing honest or accurate answers.

standard deviation

A measure of the average distance of each data point from the mean of the dataset, indicating the degree of variability or dispersion in the data.

statistical significance

The likelihood that the results of a study are not due to chance, typically determined by comparing observed data with expected outcomes under the null hypothesis.

survey

A research method that involves collecting data from a population through the use of questionnaires or interviews to gather information about attitudes, beliefs, behaviors, or characteristics.

theory

A well-supported explanation for a phenomenon based on evidence, observation, and experimentation. It integrates and organizes a set of related principles or concepts.

validity

The extent to which a research study measures what it claims to measure or accurately reflects the concept or phenomenon being studied.

variable

Any factor or condition that can change or vary in a research study. Variables are typically categorized as independent or dependent.

developmental psychology

a branch of psychology that studies physical, cognitive, and social-emotional development throughout the lifespan.

cross-sectional study

research that compares people of different ages at the same point in time.

longitudinal study

research that follows and retests the same people over time.

teratogens

agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

physical and cognitive function deficits in children caused by their birth mother's heavy drinking during pregnancy. In severe cases, symptoms include a small, out-of-proportion head and distinct facial features.

habituation

decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner.

maturation

biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

critical period

an optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development.

adolescence

the transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.

puberty

the period of sexual maturation, during which a person usually becomes capable of reproducing.

menopause

the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.

sex

in psychology, the biologically influenced characteristics by which people define male, female, and intersex.

gender

in psychology, the attitudes, feelings, and behaviors that a given culture associates with a person's biological sex. (See also gender identity.)

intersex

possessing male and female biological sexual characteristics at birth.

aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.

relational aggression

an act of aggression (physical or verbal) intended to harm a person's relationship or social standing.

X chromosome

the sex chromosome found in females and males. Females typically have two X chromosomes; males typically have one. An X chromosome from each parent produces a female child.

Y chromosome

the sex chromosome typically found only in males. When paired with an X chromosome from the mother, it produces a male child.

testosterone

the most important male sex hormone. Males and females have it, but the additional testosterone in males stimulates the growth of the male sex organs during the fetal period, and the development of male sex characteristics during puberty.

estrogens

sex hormones, such as estradiol, that contribute to female sex characteristics and are secreted in greater amounts by females than by males.

primary sex characteristics

the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.

secondary sex characteristics

nonreproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.

spermarche [sper-MAR-key]

the first ejaculation.

menarche [meh-NAR-key]

the first menstrual period.

role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

gender role

a set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for men and for women.

sexual aggression

any physical or verbal behavior of a sexual nature that is unwanted or intended to harm someone physically or emotionally. Can be expressed as either sexual harassment or sexual assault.

gender identity

our personal sense of being male, female, neither, or some combination of male and female, regardless of whether this identity matches our sex assigned at birth, and the social affiliation that may result from this identity.

social learning theory

the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.

gender typing

the acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.

androgyny

blending traditionally masculine and traditionally feminine psychological characteristics.

transgender

an umbrella term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from that associated with their birth-assigned sex.

sexuality

our thoughts, feelings, and actions related to our physical attraction to another.

asexual

having no sexual attraction toward others.

social script

a culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.

sexual orientation

according to the APA (2015), "a person's sexual and emotional attraction to another person and the behavior and/or social affiliation that may result from this attraction."

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

schema

a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

assimilation

interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.

accommodation (in developmental psychology)

in developmental psychology, adapting our current schemas (understandings) to incorporate new information.

sensorimotor stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to nearly 2 years of age) at which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.

object permanence

the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.

preoperational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) at which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic.

conservation

the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.

egocentrism

in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view.

concrete operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 7 to 11 years of age) at which children can perform the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete (actual, physical) events.

formal operational stage

in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) at which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.