Self-report techniques

Questionnaires

participants provide information relating to their thoughts, feelings and behaviour. Can comprise of open questions, closed questions or a mix of both

self-report techniques

questionnaires and interviews

Open questions

allows participants to answer how they wish, generating qualitative data as there is no fixed number of responses to select from. Provides rich data that provides insight

Strength of open question questionnaires

Less chance of researcher bias, especially if it is anonymous, where participant can answer questions in their own words, without input from the researcher.

Limitation of open question questionnaires

Social desirability bias, so lacks validity

Closed questions

restricts the participant to a predetermined set of responses, generating quantitative data. There are different types: checklist, Likert response scale and ranking scale

checklist

participants tick the answer(s) that apply to them

e.g. What is the highest academic qualification you hold?

• GCSEs

• A-Levels

• Bachelor’s degree

• Postgraduate degree

Likert response scale

participants rate on a scale their views/opinions on a question

e.g. Psychology is the most interesting A-Level subject (Circle the number that applies)

ranking scale

participants place a list of items in their preferred order

e.g. rank the following activities according to how much time you spend on them each day (1 = most time, 4 = least time)

• Talking face-to-face

• Talking on the phone

• Text messaging

• Other

strength of closed question questionnaire

Collects quantitative data which makes it easy to analyse the results statistically or in a graphical format. This means direct comparisons can be made between groups so trends can be found and more research can be conducted

limitation of closed question questionnaires

less detailed responses

response bias which could be due to participants not fully reading the questions, so the data may lack internal validity

Factors that should be considered when making a questionnaire

• simple and clear terminology

• short

• avoid personal questions

• no leading questions

• no questions that make assumptions

• use a pilot study and modify the questionnaire

Interviews

usually face-to-face but can happen over the phone. There are 3 different interview designs: participants answering a predetermined list of questions (structured interview), relaxed conversation (unstructured interview), or a mix of the two (semi-structured interview). Responses are usually recorded, using an interview schedule that the interviewer completes and/or audio or video recording, with the informed consent of the interviewee(s)

structured interview

predetermined list of questions, in which participants are asked in the exact same order for each interviewee taking part. Interviewer uses an interview schedule and will sometimes record the answers to each question by taking notes or ticking boxes on their schedule

strength of structured interviews

Collects quantitative data which is easy to statistically analyse, leading to comparisons being made between groups so the researcher can look for trends in the data. Easy to replicate due to the standardised procedures

limitation of structured interviews

Investigator effects. Body language etc may give accidental bias. Can also occur between researchers when there is more than one researcher conducting the interviews

Interviewers cannot elaborate - limits richness of data

unstructured interviews

conducted like a conversation, in which the interviewer facilitates a discussion rather than asking set questions. Very little is decided in advance, so this type of interview produces lots of qualitative data. Answers will usually be audio or video recorded as writing would be very difficult for the interviewer and it would also spoil the relaxed environment

strength of unstructured interview

increases validity of findings by reducing investigator effects

Reduces demand characteristics due to open questions being used

Greater flexibility

limitation of unstructured interviews

generates lots of qualitative data that is hard to be statistically analysed - need to use content analysis to find trends in data

time consuming and expensive - requires a trained psychologist

semi-structured interviews

mostly prepared questions that can be supplemented with additional questions as seen fit by the interviewer. Usually produces rich qualitative data

strengths of semi-structured interviews

Increases validity of findings. Reduces social desirability bias because of the use of open questions

Rich qualitative data

limitation of semi-structured interviews

uses qualitative data so is harder to analyse
time consuming and expensive

higher chance of demand characteristics

Criteria for a good questionnaire

• avoid jargon

• Avoid double-barrelled questions

• Avoid leading questions

Criteria for a good interview

• interview schedule - standardised list of questions to reduce bias

• Quiet room - more likely interviewee opens up

• Rapport - start with neutral questions to make participant feel relaxed

• Ethics - remind them answers will be treated in confidence