Approaches

Behaviourist approach: Assumptions

All behaviour is learned from experience and therefore can be changed.

Only measurable and observable behaviour should be considered.

It is useful to study animals to understand behaviour as the same processes produce learning for both humans and other animals.

We are born as a blank state (tabula rasa)

Pavlovs research

Pavlov investigated why a dogs salivation increases when it entered the room whilst initially the dog salivated at the presence of food

Pavlov rang a bell (NS) at the same time as presenting food to the dog (UCS).The dog would salivate in response to the food (UCR). Pavlov found that following repeated 'pairings' of the bell (NS) and food (UCS), when he rang the bell without any food being present (CS), the dog still salivated (CR). Pavlov was able to show that through the learning of an 'association' between two stimuli (NS + UCS) a 'conditioned response' (CR) can be produced. Pavlov's findings led to the theory of classical conditioning.

Pavlov also discovered that once an animal has been conditioned, they will also respond to other stimuli that are similar to the CS. This is known as stimulus generalisation. In addition, extinction can also take place. Pavlov discovered that, unlike the UCR, the CR does not become permanently established as a response. After a few presentations of the CS in the absence of the UCS, it loses its ability to produce the CR.

Skinners research

Operant conditioning is learning by consequence eg. reinforcement. Skinners Box was used to investigate operant conditioning - the theory that learning by consequence can occur through positive & negative reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement: The rats were initially made to be hungry, every time the rat activated a lever within the box it was rewarded with a food pellet. The rat would be positively reinforced for pressing the lever (by receiving food) so this behaviour was likely to be repeated and becomes a learned behaviour.

Negative reinforcement: Rats were electrocuted by an electric grid in the box. However, when the rat pressed the lever, the electric shocks stopped. Through negative reinforcement the rat learned that by pressing the lever they would avoid the electric shock and so the lever-pressing behaviour was likely to be repeated.

Strength of behaviourist approach

One strength of the behaviourist approach is the use of scientific methodology. The behaviourist approach studies observable & measurable behaviours, and so is said to be objective. For example, Pavlov observed the salivation response in dogs in response to various stimuli and Skinner measured the frequency of rats pressing a lever to gain a reward or avoid punishment. This means research is free from researcher bias & the findings will not be affected by personal judgement as having objective research improves the validity of the findings. Another way the methodology is scientific is that the research is usually carried out using very well controlled laboratory-based studies and is therefore replicable. This means it can be repeated and the results can then be checked for consistency, so it is reliable. This is a strength because there have been hundreds of such studies supporting the success of classical & operant conditioning and so it is seen to be a reliable explanation for behaviour.

Strength of behaviourist approach

A further strength of the behaviourist approach is that it has practical applications. Many studies have shown how behaviour can be changed using conditioning and this knowledge has then been used to modify behaviour in the real world. Systematic desensitisation is effective in treating phobias and is structured from the principles of classical conditioning. Additionally token economy uses the principles of operant conditioning and is widely used in institutions to encourage certain behaviours. Token economy reinforces desirable behaviour with a token that can then be exchanged for a a reward. Within a prison, desirable behaviour is likely to include avoiding conflict, following prison rules, keeping one's cell orderly, etc. This is a strength as both classical & operant conditioning has been used in a practical way to help modify maladaptive behaviour.

Limitation of behaviourist approach

One limitation of the behaviourist approach is the extrapolation of animal research. Caution must be used when researching animals such as dogs & rats and then applying these findings to humans. Some psychologists argue that humans are qualitatively different to such animals, so this is not an appropriate way to understand human behaviours. Humans have a greater range of complex behaviours that include cognitive elements, which leads to humans having a much more active role in their learning than animals such as rats and pigeons. However, behavioural psychologists justify the extrapolation of such research because both animals and humans learn through basic conditioning techniques. It is also easier to obtain ethical approval to conduct animal research that investigates extreme aspects of behaviour that would not be ethically justified if conducted with human participants.

Limitation of behaviourist approach

One limitation of the behaviourist approach is that it is environmentally reductionist. This means that the behaviourist approach simplifies very complex behaviour to solely 'stimulus-response' connections. For example, acquiring a phobia by simply associating a neutral stimulus (e.g. clown) with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g. unpleasant surprise). This is a limitation as human behaviour may best be explained by looking at an interaction of factors rather just the mechanism of learning itself. Reductionist explanations can ultimately result in only a partial understanding of complex behaviours being studied.

Social Learning Theory

Social Learning Theory is an extension of the behaviourist approach, but there is an interaction between the environment, behaviour and cognitive processes.Behaviour can be learned from observing and imitating role models.

Four mediational processes are involved in learning (attention, retention, reproduction and motivation), which are mental processes that occur between the role model displaying a behaviour and the behaviour being imitated by the observer.

Theory

Identification - This is when an individual is influenced by another because they are in some way similar to them, they want to be like them. 'The model' is the person with whom they identify.Eg. include having the same gender and ethnicity, higher status, celebrity status, physical attractiveness and greater expertise.

Imitation - The ACTION of using someone as a role model and copying their behaviour. It describes how an individual observes the behaviour of a role model and duplicates exactly the behaviour displayed.

• Vicarious Reinforcement (INDIRECT reinforcement) - Learning occurs via observation of the behaviour of a role model and viewing the rewards /punishments they receive for their behaviour. An observer doesn't receive reinforcement directly; they see someone else receiving it. if the model is being rewarded or punished this increases/decreases the likelihood that a behaviour is imitated by the observer; whereas,

Meditational Processes

• Attention - For a behaviour to be imitated it must capture our interest.

• Retention - A behaviour must be memorable otherwise it will be forgotten. Retention of a behaviour can be strengthened through repeated observation or if it triggers strong emotions.

• Reproduction - making a mental assessment of whether we have the ability to imitate this.

• Motivation - The rewards and punishments that follow a behaviour will be considered by the observer. If the perceived rewards outweigh any costs then the behaviour will be more likely to be imitated by the observer. If the reward is not seen to be important enough to the observer is less likely they will imitate the behaviour. Reproduction and motivation are concerned with the PERFORMANCE of behaviour.

Banduras research

To investigate whether children imitate role models even when they are no longer present.

Procedure

72 children, (aged 3-6), observed an adult model behaving either aggressively/non-aggressively (A/NA) toward an inflatable (Bobo) doll. The children were divided into whether they would watch an A/NA model, then further divided based on whether they would watch a same sex or opposite sex model.Participants watched the model's behaviour for 10 minutes from the opposite corner of the room. The model, besides physically punching & kicking the doll, would also shout abuse, such as 'Punch him on the nose' and 'Pow'.Researchers observed the children for 20 minutes. The number of aggressive acts was noted by multiple observers and inter-rater reliability was found.

• Children who observed an adult being aggressive were more likely to imitate the aggressive behaviour than children who didn't.

• Children were more likely to imitate the behaviour of the adult with the same gender.

• Boys were more likely to imitate the aggressive behaviour of the adult than the girls.

Conclusions

Observing aggressive role models can lead to aggressive behaviour being imitated. Imitation is more likely if an observer identifies with the role model. Imitation can be seen even after a delay from the learning.

Strength of SLT

One strength of SLT over the behaviourist approach is that it acknowledges key mediational processes. Humans store information about the behaviour of others and use this to make judgements about when it is appropriate to perform certain actions. SLT accounts for this by considering the combination of behaviour and cognitions.This is a strength because by recognising the role of these mediational processes SLT uses a more holistic approach and therefore offers a more complete explanation of human learning than traditional classical and operant conditioning.

Strength of SLT

One strength is that the principles of SLT have been usefully applied to increase our understanding of many areas of human behaviour, including the initiation of criminal behaviour through differential association theory. For example, Akers suggests that the probability of someone engaging in criminal behaviour increases when they are exposed to models who commit criminal behaviour, identify with these models and develop the expectations of positive consequences for their own criminal behaviour e.g. wealth and status. This is a strength because we can use the principles of SLT to prevent and reduce undesirable behaviours. 9pm watershed - no violence on the TV before children go to bed

Limitation of SLT

One limitation of SLT is that it makes little reference to the impact of biological factors on social learning. A consistent finding in the Bobo doll experiment was that boys were often more aggressive than girls regardless of the specifics of the experimental situation. This may be explained by hormonal factors, for example differences in levels of testosterone, which is present in greater quantities in boys and is linked to increased aggressive behaviour. This is a limitation because the influence of important biological factors is not accounted for in SLT therefore questioning the validity of the theory.

Limitation of SLT

One limitation of social learning theory is that the research on which the theory was based had methodological flaws. Many of the concepts within social learning theory were developed through observation of young children's behaviour in laboratory settings, this can reduce both the internal validity & external validity. In addition, their contrived nature means that many participants may respond to demand characteristics. For example, in relation to Bandura's Bobo doll research, because the main purpose of the doll is to strike it, the children were simply behaving in a way that they thought was expected. This is a limitation because the theory may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life (lacks ecological validity).

Assumption of biological approach

• Everything psychological has a biological basis.

• Our biology is determined by evolution and genetics.

• To investigate the mind, we must investigate the physical brain.

• To understand human thoughts and behaviour we must investigate biological structures (physiology) and processes (e.g. biochemistry) within the brain and body.

Genetic basis of behaviour

The genetic basis of behaviour refers to the idea that specific genes can be responsible for our behaviour.

For example, obsessive-compulsive disorder, has been linked to the SERT gene. A faulty SERT gene affects the transport of serotonin, which can create lower levels of this neurotransmitter. This leads to unwanted thoughts and repetitive behaviours, which are key symptoms of the condition.

genotype & phenotype

Genotype refers to the genetic make-up of an individual that is inherited.

Phenotype refers to the observable characteristics that are expressed and is a result of the interaction between their genotype and their environment.

For example, an individual inherits a faulty SERT gene as part of their genotype which makes them vulnerable to developing anxiety. They also experience high levels of stress during a particular period of their life. The interaction between their genotype (genetic vulnerability) and environment (stress) leads to OCD being expressed as their phenotype.

Investigation of the influence of genes

Twin studies are often used to investigate the genetic basis of behaviour. These involve the calculation of a concordance rate - the chance that two individuals share a characteristic.

Twin studies usually compare the concordance rates of monozygotic (MZ) twins (who share 100% of their DNA) and dizygotic (DZ) twins (who share 50% of their DNA).

Evolution

Evolution is the process by which successive generations of organisms change. The process of natural selection (proposed by Charles Darwin) suggests that if an organism can adapt to its environment, it will be more able to survive and therefore have a greater chance to reproduce. This adaptive characteristic may occur due to mutation.When the offspring reproduces, the adaptive characteristic will then be genetically transmitted and passed down to successive generations. For example, attachment is an adaptive behaviour. Human infants are helpless and require adult assistance for a number of years in order to ensure survival. Creating an emotional bond to an adult who will subsequently care for it therefore confers a survival advantage.

Biological Structures

The brain influences human behaviour, it is made of 4 separate lobes which all have distinct functions relating to behaviour, e.g., the frontal lobe is associated with aggressive behaviour.

The relationship between biological structures & behaviour has been shown in individuals that suffer with schizophrenia.Enlarged ventricles in central brain areas & the prefrontal cortex of the frontal lobe have been linked to negative symptoms of schizophrenia.

Neurochemistry

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that travel across the synaptic gap during the process of synaptic transmission allowing neurons to communicate.

Imbalances in NSMT levels are often associated with atypical behaviour. For example, too little serotonin has been found in patients with OCD, suggesting that serotonin has a role in preventing the repetition of tasks. A lack of serotonin appears to result in the loss of a mechanism that inhibits task repetition.

Cognitive Neuroscience

Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of how neurons behave during mental processes. Cognitive neuroscience was formally labelled by Miller and Gazzaniga and has grown considerably alongside the advancement of technology.

Brain imaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) are used whilst participants perform cognitive tasks.

This allows cognitive neuroscientists to systematically observe & describe the neurological basis of mental processing. The brain activity of ppts experiencing functional differences is often compared to neurotypical participants as a baseline.

For example PET scans have revealed a neurobiological basis for separate components of the working memory model.

Verbal rehearsal activated Broca's area, relating to the phonological loop; whereas visual tasks activated regions of the occipital lobe, relating to the visuospatial sketchpad.(Cohen et al)

Strength of neurochemistry

One advantage of neurochemical explanations is they can provide a clear understanding of biological processes underlying mental health conditions. Simplifying complex conditions to a singular neurotransmitter has led to the development of psychoactive drugs that alter the activity of the targeted chemicals.For example, knowing that depressed patients have lower levels of serotonin has led to the development of antidepressants (e.g. SSRIs) that increase serotonin activity which decreases depressive symptoms. Therefore this provides practical applications of neurochemical explanations which helps improve peoples' lives.

Strength of cognitive neuroscience

A strength of the biological approach is that the methodology on which it is based supports psychology as a scientific discipline. Brain scans are commonly used to make scientific measurements of neural structures & activity. These scans provide objective data that enable researchers to investigate the biological basis of our behaviour in an unbiased way. For example, Milev et al. used MRI scans with schizophrenic patients & found that temporal lobe grey matter volume was negatively correlated with hallucinations. Such research demonstrates how brain activity can be empirically measured to identify biological aspects of dysfunctional behaviour.

Limitation of biological approach

A further limitation of the biological approach involves implications of biologically deterministic explanations. Due to an individual having no control over abnormal brain structures, levels of neurochemicals or atypical genes that have been inherited, it is questionable as to whether they are fully responsible for their own thoughts & behaviours. For example, if an individual inherits a faulty MAOA gene which increases the activity of serotonin, this can pre-dispose them to perform impulsive criminal behaviours. This has moral, ethical and legal implications because if an individual unable to exercise free will, it is difficult to hold them to account for carrying out criminal acts such as assault. Deterministic aspects of the biological approach therefore pose serious complications for the criminal justice system.

Evaluation of evolution

A limitation regarding evolutionary explanations within the biological approach is that assumptions are made about adaptive behaviours of our distant ancestors. Although it is possible to trace ancestor DNA in the genes of modern humans, it is impossible to directly observe the behaviours controlled by these genes in our evolutionary past. For example, it is suggested that early humans evolved biological preparedness which innately predisposed them to fear dangerous stimuli and this has been passed down through generations to modern humans. However, the inability to obtain empirical data relating to such evolutionary explanations makes them unfalsifiable as they cannot be disproved, which means they cannot be improved.

Cognitive Approach Assumptions

• Behaviour is the result of internal mental processes, such as memory and perception.

• Internal mental processes can and should be studied scientifically.

• Internal mental processes cannot be observed directly so they are studied indirectly by making inferences based on behaviour which can be observed.

• An information processing approach is used to explain human thinking and behaviour.

e Human mind is like a computer

Cognitive approach

The cognitive approach proposes that behaviour is the result of internal mental processes (IMPs), such as memory and perception. They strongly defend the view that MPs can & should be studied scientifically. IMPs cannot be observed directly so they are studied indirectly by making inferences (assumptions) based on behaviour which can be observed.

Schemas are thought to influence a person's behaviour. A schema is a cognitive framework that helps organise and interpret information. They are 'packages' of knowledge developed through experience. Schemas allow us to fill in the gaps in information, inform our expectations and enable us to behave 'appropriately' in a situation.

The cognitive approach uses theoretical models to explain specific mental processes and are characterised by a series of steps, usually illustrated by a diagram. They are used to make inferences about unseen mental processes that are causing a particular behaviour.One example of a theoretical model is the multi-store model of memory. The MSM explains IMPs in human memory by depicting key storage components (e.g. STM & LTM) as boxes and key processes (e.g. attention and rehearsal) as arrows.

Computer scientists construct computer models to simulate human IMP. A computer is programmed with an algorithm, which is a step-by-step set of instructions about how to process information. Input is provided to the computer programme (likened to environmental stimuli); this information is processed according to the algorithm (likened to internal mental processes); which results in an output (likened to behaviour).

One example of a computer model used in virtual relationships is the mobile dating App Tinder, which attempts to simulate the processes a human would go through when deciding on a potential romantic partner. The app uses an algorithm that accepts inputs such as a person's personal interests, processes this information by matching users with similar interests and provides an output which returns a selection of potential partner matches.

Strength of CA

One STRENGTH of the cognitive approach is that it has a number of successful applications. For example, cognitive psychology has expanded our understanding of Psychopathology by offering explanations for psychological disorders like depression, suggesting it is underpinned by faulty thought processes. This has led to many successful cognitive based therapies for depression, OCD & eating disorders. For example CBT for depression involves using evidence to challenge negative and irrational thoughts.In addition, cognitive psychology has applied within Eyewitness Testimony research through the development of the cognitive interview. This interview technique is used to improve the accuracy of EWT through increasing the accessibility of stored information.Therefore, the principles of the cognitive approach have been usefully applied to a number of settings.

Limitation of CA

One limitation of the cognitive approach is that it has been accused of having an overly-simplistic, mechanistic view of human behaviour. Unlike humans, computers do not forget, make mistakes or ignore available information. Researchers have not been able to reliably create algorithms for 'mood' and 'feeling'.Although many inferences about human thought processing can be suggested, a complete replication is problematic. Furthermore one of the most well known theoretical models the multi-store model has been heavily criticised for taking an oversimplified view of human memory. In particular its view of STM & LTM as simple unitary stores has been disproven. This might explain why computer models are often unable to make future predictions about human thought processing, which questions their usefulness.

Strength + counter of cognitive approach

One strength of the cognitive approach is that the methodology on which it is based supports Psychology as a credible scientific discipline. For example, the approach employs highly controlled & rigorous empirical methods to enable researchers to infer cognitive processes at work. Peterson & Peterson showed participants trigrams and asked them to count backwards in 3s from a given number, from this it was suggested that the duration of STM was 18-30 seconds. This demonstrates how laboratory experiments are used to obtain empirical, objective data that can be used to make. inferences about mental processes within the cognitive approach. However the methodology used by the cognitive approach leads to issues with validity. These tasks often lack mundane realism as research into memory such as Jacobs classic study into STM capacity, where participants were given series of digits to recall in serial order to measure their digit span, which is unlike more complex stimuli processed in real life. Additionally, such tasks usually take place in artificial environments which can lead to the research lacking ecological validity because the findings obtained may not be generalisable to more uncontrolled real-life settings. Other experiments within the cognitive approach, may require participants to 'verbalise' their thoughts, which can be difficult to articulate clearly and honestly. The occurrence of such issues can reduce both the internal & external validity of findings in the cognitive approach.

Psychodynamic approach assumptions

• Unconscious activity is the key determinant of how we behave.

• Our psyche which controls our personality - is comprised of the id, ego and superego.

• We possess innate 'drives' (or 'instincts') that motivate behaviour throughout our lives.

• Childhood experiences determine our personality when we reach adulthood.

The Role of the Unconscious

Freud suggested the existence of the unconscious mind which is inaccessible to our conscious awareness. The unconscious is made up of our biological drives & instincts as well as threatening & disturbing memories that have been repressed or forgotten.

The role of the unconscious is to act as a driving force behind our everyday actions, behaviours and our personality. For example, the Psychodynamic approach believes that children who have been abused or neglected, repress the early trauma but that it will eventually resurface in adulthood in the form of depression and anxiety. The unconscious also protects the conscious self from anxiety, fear, trauma and conflict. For example, a smoker might unconsciously use a defence mechanism such as denial, to reduce the anxiety associated with admitting that smoking is bad for their health.

The structure of personality

Freud described as tripartite composing of the id,ego and the superego. The id is present from birth and is the unconscious part of the mind.The id acts according to the pleasure principle which is selfish and demands instant gratification .Whereas the superego (usually formed around 5yrs old) acts according to the morality principle. The superego is our internalised sense of right & wrong causing good behaviour and guilt when rules are broken. The ego (formed around 2yrs old) satisfies both the id & superego and uses defence mechanisms to reduct confict between impulsive and moralistic demands of the two. The ego used the conscious part of the mind.

Defence mechanisms

If an individual is unable to deal with a situation rationally then defence mechanisms (which operate unconsciously) may be triggered in order to reduce anxiety

•Repression

•Displacement

•Denial

Repression

Burying an unpleasant thought or desire in the unconscious.

Repressed thoughts and impulses continue to influence behaviour without the individual being aware of the reasons behind their behaviour. For example traumatic childhood experiences maybe of forgotten but individual may have trouble forming relationships

Displacement

Emotions are directed away from their source or target towards other things

This is the hospital feelings a route for expression, even though they are misapplied to an innocent person or object for example finding a door until hitting a person arguing at your partner when you are angry with your boss at work

Denial

A threatening thought is ignored or treated as if it was not true

This allows the individual to deal with painful feelings that may be associated with the situation and reduce their anxiety. For example a wife might find evidence that her husband is cheating on her but explain it away using other reasons

Psychsexual stages

Oral Anal Phallic Latency Genital

Freud believed that personality develops through a sequence of five stages (OAPLG)in which the libido (pleasure-seeking energy of the id) becomes focused on particular erogenous zones (sensitive body parts). The extent to which a child is able to express their libido influences their behaviour.

A child can become fixated ('stuck') at a psychosexual stage if they are unable to resolve specific unconscious conflicts or if the particular erogenous zone is given too little or too much stimulation. Fixation at a particular stage can result in behaviour associated with that stage appearing in adult life.

Oral Stage

0-1 years old eg.sucking/eating

Satisfaction derived from mouth

Cause → neglect of childs feeding

O aggressive = dominating pessimistic envious

O receptive = chewing gum smoking bite pens

Anal stage

1-3 years old

Satisfaction derived from anal region

Cause→strict potty training

Anal retentive = frustrated,stubborn,tidy OCD

Phallic Stage

3-6yrs old Satisfaction derived from genitals

Boys undergo Oedipus complex which is an unconscious desire for the mother and hatred of their father as a rival

To repress this they identify with their father + take on gender roles + superego develops

Effect - vain impulsive homosexuality authority problems

Latency Stage

6-12 years

Sexual impulses are strongly repressed & reduced

The individual avoids opposite sec and emoti

Genital stage

12+ years

Satisfaction derived from genitals

Well adjusted mature able to love & be loved

Strength of psychodynamic approach

Freud and his followers were the first to demonstrate the potential of psychological, rather than biological explanations for behaviours. This led to the formation of psychological treatments, rather than biological therapies, which have been found to be successful in treating patients with a wide range of disorders. Psychoanalysis, which uses techniques such as dream analysis and free association, allows a therapist access to a client's unconscious mind. By unlocking repressed memories, a therapist can make an individual aware of unconscious conflicts and offer support to resolve these. This is a strength as it illustrates the useful practical applications of the approach.

Limitation of PA

Popper argued that the psychodynamic approach does not meet the scientific criterion of falsification, as its major features cannot be empirically tested. For instance, defence mechanisms and psychosexual development are said to occur at an unconscious level, making them difficult, if not impossible, to test. For example, when trying to explain offender behaviour, there is the difficulty associated with testing concepts such as an inadequate superego, which is not measurable using objective, scientific methods. This means that applications to crime cannot be tested empirically and can only be judged at face value. This therefore questions whether it fulfils the criteria of psychology as a science.

Limitation of PA

The psychodynamic approach can be seen as being overly deterministic, leaving little room for the idea of free will. It suggests that adult behaviour is determined by a combination of innate drives and early experiences and that any free will we may think we have is an illusion, e.g. according to this approach, if someone was overindulged or deprived at a psychosexual stage then they may develop an abnormality in adult life, for example in offending behaviour, the belief that unconscious conflicts, rooted in early childhood and determined by interactions with parents, would drive future criminal behaviour. This is a weakness because the approach suggests that all behaviour is driven by unconscious forced only ignoring the probity of free will which may also govern behaviour

Humanistic approach assumptions

• Human beings have free will and even though we are affected by internal and external influences, we are active agents who have the ability to determine our own behaviour.

•The humanistic approach is an idiographic approach as it suggests that we are all unique, therefore psychology should focus on the study of subjective experience, rather than general laws. This is referred to as the person-centred approach in psychology.

•Reaching self-actualisation is the main motivation of the human organism.

Freewill

Freewill is the idea that humans are free to choose their own thoughts and actions therefore having an active role in controlling their behaviour. It views humans as self-governing therefore they are not acting in response to any external or internal pressures.

Maslows hierarchy of needs

Maslow created a hierarchy of needs which explains what motivates people. Our most basic need is for physical survival. Once this need is satisfied we can move on to the next level. Moving up the hierarchy, the next level is safety and security, followed by love and belongingness, self-esteem and finally self-actualisation. A person Safety is only able to progress through the hierarchy Physiological once the current need has been met.

Self actualisation

Self-actualisation represents the uppermost level of Maslow's hierarchy of needs. It is the desire to grow psychologically and fulfil one's full potential. This is where a person is creative, accepting of other people and has an accurate perception of the world. Maslow believed that self-actualisation is the aim, of most people, but not everyone will manage this due to important psychological barriers that may prevent a person from reaching their true potential (e.g. the ability to accept themselves and other people).

Congruence + Conditions of Worth

Rogers believed that for a person to achieve self-actualisation they must be in a state of congruence. This is when a person's ideal self (who they would like to be) is consistent with their actual experiences and self-image. Everyone experiences a certain amount of incongruence. This can act as a barrier to personal growth and can explain the symptoms of depression/anxiety.

Conditions of worth are the requirements we think we must meet for other people to accept us as worthy of their love. They are a result of receiving conditional positive regard from others. As children, we learn that there are certain things we do that please our parents and we strive to do those things. As we grow up, we also learn what our teachers, friends, and society in general seem to expect from us. Eventually, we may internalise the conditions of worth imposed upon us and live our life according to those conditions. This may result in unhappiness and a lack of self-worth as we strive to satisfy conditions that may be unrealistic.

In contrast, unconditional positive regard is needed to reach self-actualisation. No requirements need to be met for other people to accept and love us. A person feels free to try things out and make mistakes, even though this may lead to getting it wrong at times as there is a total acceptance by others.

Strength of humanistic approach

One strength of the humanistic approach is that is has research to support its ideas. Research with adolescents has shown evidence consistent with Rogers view, i.e. those individuals who experience conditional positive regard are likely to do things to meet others' expectations even when they clash with their own values. For example, Harter et al found that teenagers who feel that they have to fulfil certain conditions in order to gain their parents approval create a false self. By pretending to be the kind of person his or her parents would love, and going against their own values, they are more likely to develop depression and a tendency to lose touch with their own true self.

Limitation of humanistic approach

A limitation of the humanistic approach to psychology is that it is difficult to test empirically with objective measures. For example, the concept of congruence and self-actualisation are abstract ideas which would be difficult to test under experimental conditions. However Rogers did attempt to introduce more rigour by introducing the Q-sort a more objective measure of progress in therapy of the self-concept and ideal self and their relationship. The client is asked to arrange the cards (containing statements) into an order ranging from 'very characteristic of me' to 'not at all characteristic of me'. This is done to measure the self-image and then again for the ideal self.The Q-sorts are then correlated to determine the discrepancy between self-image and ideal-self. This is repeated at various points throughout the therapy. However, the approach and application in therapy still lacks empirical evidence to support its claims. This means that the theory can't be falsified through scientific measures.

Strength of HA

A strength of the humanistic approach is that it takes a holistic approach and rejects any attempt to simplify behaviour and experiences into smaller. components (reductionism). It considers all aspects of human behaviour, for example Maslow's hierarchy of needs considers a number of differing factors including physiological heeds (e.g. food, social needs (e.g. love and belonging) and psychological heeds (e.g. esteem). This is in contrast to the biological approach which would only focus on physiological needs. This is a strength because the humanistic approach uses the highest level of explanation incorporating biological, social and psychological factors to explain the complexity of human behaviour.

Limitation of HA

One limitation of the HA is that it is culturally biased.Many of the ideas that are central to humanistic psychology (such as the 'self' and self-actualisation), are only relevant to individualistic cultures in the western world. Many studies have confirmed that Europeans and Americans (individualist cultures) focus more on personal identity in defining the 'self-concept, whereas Chinese, Japanese and Koreans (collectivist cultures) define self-concept more in terms of social relationships. Nevis carried out a study in China and found that belongingness needs are seen as more fundamental than physiological needs and that self-actualisation is defined more in terms of contributions to the community than in terms of individual development. Therefore, it is possible that some of the concepts of the humanistic approach are culturally biased and should only be understood within their cultural context.