Approaches

Behaviourist approach: Assumptions

All behaviour is learned from experience and therefore can be changed.

Only measurable and observable behaviour should be considered.

It is useful to study animals to understand behaviour as the same processes produce learning for both humans and other animals.

We are born as a blank state (tabula rasa)

Pavlovs research

Pavlov investigated why a dogs salivation increases when it entered the room whilst initially the dog salivated at the presence of food

Pavlov rang a bell (NS) at the same time as presenting food to the dog (UCS).The dog would salivate in response to the food (UCR). Pavlov found that following repeated 'pairings' of the bell (NS) and food (UCS), when he rang the bell without any food being present (CS), the dog still salivated (CR). Pavlov was able to show that through the learning of an 'association' between two stimuli (NS + UCS) a 'conditioned response' (CR) can be produced. Pavlov's findings led to the theory of classical conditioning.

Pavlov also discovered that once an animal has been conditioned, they will also respond to other stimuli that are similar to the CS. This is known as stimulus generalisation. In addition, extinction can also take place. Pavlov discovered that, unlike the UCR, the CR does not become permanently established as a response. After a few presentations of the CS in the absence of the UCS, it loses its ability to produce the CR.

Skinners research

Operant conditioning is learning by consequence eg. reinforcement. Skinners Box was used to investigate operant conditioning - the theory that learning by consequence can occur through positive & negative reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement: The rats were initially made to be hungry, every time the rat activated a lever within the box it was rewarded with a food pellet. The rat would be positively reinforced for pressing the lever (by receiving food) so this behaviour was likely to be repeated and becomes a learned behaviour.

Negative reinforcement: Rats were electrocuted by an electric grid in the box. However, when the rat pressed the lever, the electric shocks stopped. Through negative reinforcement the rat learned that by pressing the lever they would avoid the electric shock and so the lever-pressing behaviour was likely to be repeated.

Strength of behaviourist approach

One strength of the behaviourist approach is the use of scientific methodology. The behaviourist approach studies observable & measurable behaviours, and so is said to be objective. For example, Pavlov observed the salivation response in dogs in response to various stimuli and Skinner measured the frequency of rats pressing a lever to gain a reward or avoid punishment. This means research is free from researcher bias & the findings will not be affected by personal judgement as having objective research improves the validity of the findings. Another way the methodology is scientific is that the research is usually carried out using very well controlled laboratory-based studies and is therefore replicable. This means it can be repeated and the results can then be checked for consistency, so it is reliable. This is a strength because there have been hundreds of such studies supporting the success of classical & operant conditioning and so it is seen to be a reliable explanation for behaviour.

Strength of behaviourist approach

A further strength of the behaviourist approach is that it has practical applications. Many studies have shown how behaviour can be changed using conditioning and this knowledge has then been used to modify behaviour in the real world. Systematic desensitisation is effective in treating phobias and is structured from the principles of classical conditioning. Additionally token economy uses the principles of operant conditioning and is widely used in institutions to encourage certain behaviours. Token economy reinforces desirable behaviour with a token that can then be exchanged for a a reward. Within a prison, desirable behaviour is likely to include avoiding conflict, following prison rules, keeping one's cell orderly, etc. This is a strength as both classical & operant conditioning has been used in a practical way to help modify maladaptive behaviour.

Limitation of behaviourist approach

One limitation of the behaviourist approach is the extrapolation of animal research. Caution must be used when researching animals such as dogs & rats and then applying these findings to humans. Some psychologists argue that humans are qualitatively different to such animals, so this is not an appropriate way to understand human behaviours. Humans have a greater range of complex behaviours that include cognitive elements, which leads to humans having a much more active role in their learning than animals such as rats and pigeons. However, behavioural psychologists justify the extrapolation of such research because both animals and humans learn through basic conditioning techniques. It is also easier to obtain ethical approval to conduct animal research that investigates extreme aspects of behaviour that would not be ethically justified if conducted with human participants.

Limitation of behaviourist approach

One limitation of the behaviourist approach is that it is environmentally reductionist. This means that the behaviourist approach simplifies very complex behaviour to solely 'stimulus-response' connections. For example, acquiring a phobia by simply associating a neutral stimulus (e.g. clown) with an unconditioned stimulus (e.g. unpleasant surprise). This is a limitation as human behaviour may best be explained by looking at an interaction of factors rather just the mechanism of learning itself. Reductionist explanations can ultimately result in only a partial understanding of complex behaviours being studied.

Social Learning Theory

Social Learning Theory is an extension of the behaviourist approach, but there is an interaction between the environment, behaviour and cognitive processes.Behaviour can be learned from observing and imitating role models.

Four mediational processes are involved in learning (attention, retention, reproduction and motivation), which are mental processes that occur between the role model displaying a behaviour and the behaviour being imitated by the observer.

Theory

Identification - This is when an individual is influenced by another because they are in some way similar to them, they want to be like them. 'The model' is the person with whom they identify.Eg. include having the same gender and ethnicity, higher status, celebrity status, physical attractiveness and greater expertise.

Imitation - The ACTION of using someone as a role model and copying their behaviour. It describes how an individual observes the behaviour of a role model and duplicates exactly the behaviour displayed.

• Vicarious Reinforcement (INDIRECT reinforcement) - Learning occurs via observation of the behaviour of a role model and viewing the rewards /punishments they receive for their behaviour. An observer doesn't receive reinforcement directly; they see someone else receiving it. if the model is being rewarded or punished this increases/decreases the likelihood that a behaviour is imitated by the observer; whereas,

Meditational Processes

• Attention - For a behaviour to be imitated it must capture our interest.

• Retention - A behaviour must be memorable otherwise it will be forgotten. Retention of a behaviour can be strengthened through repeated observation or if it triggers strong emotions.

• Reproduction - making a mental assessment of whether we have the ability to imitate this.

• Motivation - The rewards and punishments that follow a behaviour will be considered by the observer. If the perceived rewards outweigh any costs then the behaviour will be more likely to be imitated by the observer. If the reward is not seen to be important enough to the observer is less likely they will imitate the behaviour. Reproduction and motivation are concerned with the PERFORMANCE of behaviour.

Banduras research

To investigate whether children imitate role models even when they are no longer present.

Procedure

72 children, (aged 3-6), observed an adult model behaving either aggressively/non-aggressively (A/NA) toward an inflatable (Bobo) doll. The children were divided into whether they would watch an A/NA model, then further divided based on whether they would watch a same sex or opposite sex model.Participants watched the model's behaviour for 10 minutes from the opposite corner of the room. The model, besides physically punching & kicking the doll, would also shout abuse, such as 'Punch him on the nose' and 'Pow'.Researchers observed the children for 20 minutes. The number of aggressive acts was noted by multiple observers and inter-rater reliability was found.

• Children who observed an adult being aggressive were more likely to imitate the aggressive behaviour than children who didn't.

• Children were more likely to imitate the behaviour of the adult with the same gender.

• Boys were more likely to imitate the aggressive behaviour of the adult than the girls.

Conclusions

Observing aggressive role models can lead to aggressive behaviour being imitated. Imitation is more likely if an observer identifies with the role model. Imitation can be seen even after a delay from the learning.

Strength of SLT

One strength of SLT over the behaviourist approach is that it acknowledges key mediational processes. Humans store information about the behaviour of others and use this to make judgements about when it is appropriate to perform certain actions. SLT accounts for this by considering the combination of behaviour and cognitions.This is a strength because by recognising the role of these mediational processes SLT uses a more holistic approach and therefore offers a more complete explanation of human learning than traditional classical and operant conditioning.

Strength of SLT

One strength is that the principles of SLT have been usefully applied to increase our understanding of many areas of human behaviour, including the initiation of criminal behaviour through differential association theory. For example, Akers suggests that the probability of someone engaging in criminal behaviour increases when they are exposed to models who commit criminal behaviour, identify with these models and develop the expectations of positive consequences for their own criminal behaviour e.g. wealth and status. This is a strength because we can use the principles of SLT to prevent and reduce undesirable behaviours. 9pm watershed - no violence on the TV before children go to bed

Limitation of SLT

One limitation of SLT is that it makes little reference to the impact of biological factors on social learning. A consistent finding in the Bobo doll experiment was that boys were often more aggressive than girls regardless of the specifics of the experimental situation. This may be explained by hormonal factors, for example differences in levels of testosterone, which is present in greater quantities in boys and is linked to increased aggressive behaviour. This is a limitation because the influence of important biological factors is not accounted for in SLT therefore questioning the validity of the theory.

Limitation of SLT

One limitation of social learning theory is that the research on which the theory was based had methodological flaws. Many of the concepts within social learning theory were developed through observation of young children's behaviour in laboratory settings, this can reduce both the internal validity & external validity. In addition, their contrived nature means that many participants may respond to demand characteristics. For example, in relation to Bandura's Bobo doll research, because the main purpose of the doll is to strike it, the children were simply behaving in a way that they thought was expected. This is a limitation because the theory may tell us little about how children actually learn aggression in everyday life (lacks ecological validity).

Assumption of biological approach

• Everything psychological has a biological basis.

• Our biology is determined by evolution and genetics.

• To investigate the mind, we must investigate the physical brain.

• To understand human thoughts and behaviour we must investigate biological structures (physiology) and processes (e.g. biochemistry) within the brain and body.

Genetic basis of behaviour

The genetic basis of behaviour refers to the idea that specific genes can be responsible for our behaviour.

For example, obsessive-compulsive disorder, has been linked to the SERT gene. A faulty SERT gene affects the transport of serotonin, which can create lower levels of this neurotransmitter. This leads to unwanted thoughts and repetitive behaviours, which are key symptoms of the condition.

genotype & phenotype

Genotype refers to the genetic make-up of an individual that is inherited.

Phenotype refers to the observable characteristics that are expressed and is a result of the interaction between their genotype and their environment.

For example, an individual inherits a faulty SERT gene as part of their genotype which makes them vulnerable to developing anxiety. They also experience high levels of stress during a particular period of their life. The interaction between their genotype (genetic vulnerability) and environment (stress) leads to OCD being expressed as their phenotype.

Investigation of the influence of genes

Twin studies are often used to investigate the genetic basis of behaviour. These involve the calculation of a concordance rate - the chance that two individuals share a characteristic.

Twin studies usually compare the concordance rates of monozygotic (MZ) twins (who share 100% of their DNA) and dizygotic (DZ) twins (who share 50% of their DNA).

Evolution

Evolution is the process by which successive generations of organisms change. The process of natural selection (proposed by Charles Darwin) suggests that if an organism can adapt to its environment, it will be more able to survive and therefore have a greater chance to reproduce. This adaptive characteristic may occur due to mutation.When the offspring reproduces, the adaptive characteristic will then be genetically transmitted and passed down to successive generations. For example, attachment is an adaptive behaviour. Human infants are helpless and require adult assistance for a number of years in order to ensure survival. Creating an emotional bond to an adult who will subsequently care for it therefore confers a survival advantage.

Biological Structures

The brain influences human behaviour, it is made of 4 separate lobes which all have distinct functions relating to behaviour, e.g., the frontal lobe is associated with aggressive behaviour.

The relationship between biological structures & behaviour has been shown in individuals that suffer with schizophrenia.Enlarged ventricles in central brain areas & the prefrontal cortex of the frontal lobe have been linked to negative symptoms of schizophrenia.

Neurochemistry

Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that travel across the synaptic gap during the process of synaptic transmission allowing neurons to communicate.

Imbalances in NSMT levels are often associated with atypical behaviour. For example, too little serotonin has been found in patients with OCD, suggesting that serotonin has a role in preventing the repetition of tasks. A lack of serotonin appears to result in the loss of a mechanism that inhibits task repetition.

Cognitive Neuroscience

Cognitive neuroscience is the scientific study of how neurons behave during mental processes. Cognitive neuroscience was formally labelled by Miller and Gazzaniga and has grown considerably alongside the advancement of technology.

Brain imaging techniques such as functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET) are used whilst participants perform cognitive tasks.

This allows cognitive neuroscientists to systematically observe & describe the neurological basis of mental processing. The brain activity of ppts experiencing functional differences is often compared to neurotypical participants as a baseline.

For example PET scans have revealed a neurobiological basis for separate components of the working memory model.

Verbal rehearsal activated Broca's area, relating to the phonological loop; whereas visual tasks activated regions of the occipital lobe, relating to the visuospatial sketchpad.(Cohen et al)

Strength of neurochemistry

One advantage of neurochemical explanations is they can provide a clear understanding of biological processes underlying mental health conditions. Simplifying complex conditions to a singular neurotransmitter has led to the development of psychoactive drugs that alter the activity of the targeted chemicals.For example, knowing that depressed patients have lower levels of serotonin has led to the development of antidepressants (e.g. SSRIs) that increase serotonin activity which decreases depressive symptoms. Therefore this provides practical applications of neurochemical explanations which helps improve peoples' lives.

Strength of cognitive neuroscience

A strength of the biological approach is that the methodology on which it is based supports psychology as a scientific discipline. Brain scans are commonly used to make scientific measurements of neural structures & activity. These scans provide objective data that enable researchers to investigate the biological basis of our behaviour in an unbiased way. For example, Milev et al. used MRI scans with schizophrenic patients & found that temporal lobe grey matter volume was negatively correlated with hallucinations. Such research demonstrates how brain activity can be empirically measured to identify biological aspects of dysfunctional behaviour.

Limitation of biological approach

A further limitation of the biological approach involves implications of biologically deterministic explanations. Due to an individual having no control over abnormal brain structures, levels of neurochemicals or atypical genes that have been inherited, it is questionable as to whether they are fully responsible for their own thoughts & behaviours. For example, if an individual inherits a faulty MAOA gene which increases the activity of serotonin, this can pre-dispose them to perform impulsive criminal behaviours. This has moral, ethical and legal implications because if an individual unable to exercise free will, it is difficult to hold them to account for carrying out criminal acts such as assault. Deterministic aspects of the biological approach therefore pose serious complications for the criminal justice system.

Evaluation of evolution

A limitation regarding evolutionary explanations within the biological approach is that assumptions are made about adaptive behaviours of our distant ancestors. Although it is possible to trace ancestor DNA in the genes of modern humans, it is impossible to directly observe the behaviours controlled by these genes in our evolutionary past. For example, it is suggested that early humans evolved biological preparedness which innately predisposed them to fear dangerous stimuli and this has been passed down through generations to modern humans. However, the inability to obtain empirical data relating to such evolutionary explanations makes them unfalsifiable as they cannot be disproved, which means they cannot be improved.