Enlightenment Thinkers Quiz

How did Hobbes view human nature

Humans live in a chaotic state of nature and must be ruled by a government to avoid a life that is nasty brutish and short

How did Hobbes view government

• Government's role was to maintain stability and peace not individual freedom

• Only governments with indivisible and unlimited power would prevent society from chaos

How did Locke view human nature

He considered men to be equal free and good in nature

How did Locke view government

• He believed that the government must be legitimate (government is based on a social contract and that the government must govern at the consent of the governed)

• Right to rebel

• Protects individual rights

How did Montesquieu view human nature

Human nature involved greed, selfishness and abusing power

How did Montesquieu view government

• Separation of powers to keep government in checks and balances (executive legislative judicial)

• People must participate

How did Rousseau view human nature

• People are inherently good and have been corrupted by civilization and society

• People have natural rights

How did Rousseau view government

• Very limited to no government involvement

• Social contract between people not a ruler

How did Burke view human nature

People were driven primarily by self-interest (passions of individuals should not be allowed to dictate political judgements- mob rule)

How did Burke view government

• He wanted gradual progress in society

• Emphasized tradition

• Led by informad capable elites

• Masses can’t govern themselves

How did Mill view human nature

If a majority opinion is favored, then those people will oppress minorities and social tyranny of a public opinion leads to conformity

How did Mill view government

• Individuality was the foundation of a healthy society

• Society could only justifiably interfere with individuals liberties to prevent harm to others

Classic left wing views

• Optimistic view of human nature  

• Favours political change towards a free society ruled by the will of the people 

Classic radical views

• Immediate, fundamental change through revolution 

• Establishment = mortal threat to be destroyed 

• Society should have maximum freedom based on natural rights  

Classic liberal views

• Change through political pressure by the people 

• Establishment needs significant reform 

• Society should be free, be governed by the people, follow the general will of the majority  

Classic right wing views

• Pessimistic view of human nature 

• Favours maintaining tradition and institutions and hierarchal controlled society  

Classic conservative views

• Favours status quo and traditional institutions 

• Change is dangerous 

• The masses = irrational and need guidance/leadership 

• Society should be led by capable, informed elites 

Classic reactionary views

• Views change as a threat to the natural order 

• Wants return to previous time “when things were as they should be” 

• Freedom = chaos 

• Masses need strict control 

Collectivism

A belief in the collective or group (sharing, cooperation, security and stability)

Individualism

A belief in the individual (self-interest, competition, freedom and liberty)

Rule of Law

Society governed by laws not people (no one should ever be “above the law”) 

Constitution

Document outlining how government is structured and the role of individual rights/responsibilities 

Suffrage

The right to vote in political elections.

Majority rule with minority protections 

The principle that the greater number should exercise greater power (50% plus 1) and measures designed to safeguard minority groups from discrimination

Direct democracy

A state in which all political decisions are made directly by qualified voters 

Representative democracy

A state in which the legislative powers are delegated by qualified voters to their representatives in a legislative body such as parliament senate or congress 

Recall 

The ability of citizens to replace one elected representative with another through a by-election (not on the federal level)

Plebiscite

A direct ballot by all qualified voters on a public question

Referendum

The submission of a planned law to a direct vote of the people

Periodic elections in Canada 

 

• Elections of HOC and provincial legislature must occur every 5 years 

• But PM or premier may call an election anytime if: (5 years max)

• The Prime Minister asks the Governor General to dissolve Parliament.

• The government loses a confidence vote in the House of Commons.

Separation of powers

• Executive: administers laws 

• Legislative: Make/amend laws 

• Judicial: Interpret laws 

Freedom of the press

The right of journalists and media to publish news, opinions, and information without government control or censorship.

Canadian electoral system

• Canada is a constitutional monarchy: the King is the head of state (represented by the Governor General), and the Prime Minister is the head of government.

• Voters don’t vote directly for the Prime Minister — they elect Members of Parliament (MPs) to the House of Commons.

• The country is divided into 338 ridings (electoral districts).

• Each riding elects 1 MP to represent them in Parliament.

• In each riding, the candidate with the most votes wins, even if they don’t get a majority (>50%).

• Example: If Candidate A gets 38%, B gets 35%, and C gets 27%, Candidate A wins.

• The political party with the most elected MPs usually forms government.

• If they win more than half the seats (170+), it’s a majority government.

• If they win fewer than half, but still the most, it’s a minority government — they must rely on support from other parties to pass laws.

Periodic elections in the US

President is voted every 4 years, House every 2 years, 1/3 of the senate is voted every 2 years but they have a 6 year term (elections are on specific dates)

American electoral system

• The U.S. mainly uses a first-past-the-post (plurality) system: the candidate with the most votes wins, even without a majority.

• Most races are single-member districts (one representative per district).

• The Electoral College decides the winner, not the direct popular vote. Each state gets a number of electors equal to its seats in Congress.

• Most states use a winner-takes-all system: whichever candidate gets the most votes in that state wins all its electors.

• To win the presidency, a candidate needs 270 of 538 electoral votes.

• House of Representatives: 435 members, elected every 2 years from districts of roughly equal population.

• Senate: 100 members (2 per state), elected for 6-year terms, staggered so one-third of seats are up every 2 years.

• Primaries: Before the general election, parties hold primaries or caucuses to choose their candidates.

• Ballot measures: Some states allow direct democracy through initiatives and referendums.

• Decentralization: Each state runs its own elections, so rules differ widely.

First-Past-the-Post (FPP)

• Each electoral district elects one representative.

• The candidate with the most votes wins

• Simple and easy to understand.

• Usually produces stable governments (often majority governments).

• Strong local representation (one MP/Rep per riding/district).

• Can be unfair to smaller parties → lots of votes don’t translate into seats.

• Can result in a party winning a majority of seats without a majority of votes.

Proportional Representation (PR)

• Seats are distributed based on the percentage of votes a party receives.

• Usually applied at the national or regional level, not per district.

• Fairer to smaller parties; nearly all votes count.

• Results better reflect the overall will of the voters.

• Encourages cooperation (often leads to coalition governments).

• Can lead to unstable coalition governments.

• Less direct local representation.

• More complex voting/counting system.

Bill of Rights

• Limits government power, protects individuals

• Freedoms: Speech, press, religion, assembly, petition

• Bear arms, jury trial, due process, no cruel punishment

• Rights seen as absolute, limits decided by courts

• U.S. Supreme Court strikes down unconstitutional laws

Charter of Rights & Freedoms

• Protects rights while allowing limits in society’s interest

• Freedoms: expression, religion, assembly, association

• Democratic (vote/run), mobility, equality, language & minority education rights

• Section 1 → “reasonable limits”; Section 33 → Notwithstanding Clause (override)

• Supreme Court of Canada can strike down or adjust laws

Parliamentary 

• Head of government: Prime Minister (PM).

• Chosen by: The leader of the majority party.

• Executive–Legislative relationship: Fused → PM and Cabinet are members of Parliament.

• Accountability: Government must keep confidence of Parliament; can fall with a vote of no confidence.

• Elections: Can be called early; no fixed date (though there’s usually a maximum term).

• Pros: More efficient lawmaking; closer link between executive and legislature.

• Cons: Less separation of powers; executive can dominate if one party has a big majority.

Presidential 

• Head of government: President.

• Chosen by: Citizens, separately from legislature (through Electoral College in U.S.).

• Executive–Legislative relationship: Separate branches → President cannot sit in Congress.

• Accountability: Fixed term (usually 4 years); removal only through impeachment.

• Elections: Fixed dates; no early dissolutions.

• Pros: Clear separation of powers; stable terms of office.

• Cons: Can cause gridlock if President and legislature are from different parties.

Responsible government 

• Meaning: The executive (Prime Minister + Cabinet) must have the support (“confidence”) of the elected legislature (House of Commons).

• How it works:

  • If the government loses a confidence vote, it must resign or call an election.

  • The executive is directly accountable to Parliament.

• Purpose: Prevents the government from ruling without the support of elected representatives.

• Effect: Ties the executive and legislature closely together (fusion of powers).

Checks and balances

• Meaning: Each branch of government (executive, legislative, judicial) has powers to limit (“check”) the others.

• How it works:

  • President can veto laws, but Congress can override veto.

  • Courts can strike down laws or executive actions as unconstitutional.

  • Congress controls budgets, confirms appointments, can impeach President.

• Purpose: Prevents any one branch from becoming too powerful.

• Effect: Creates separation of powers and potential gridlock if branches conflict.

Majority government

• Definition: One party wins more than half the seats in the legislature.

• Effect:

  • Can pass laws easily without needing support from other parties.

  • Very stable and usually lasts the full term.

Minority government

• Definition: One party wins the most seats but less than half the total.

• Effect:

  • Must rely on support from other parties (case by case) to pass laws and budgets.

  • Less stable → can lose a confidence vote, leading to another election.

Coalition government 

• Definition: Two or more parties form an agreement to govern together, sharing Cabinet positions.

• Effect:

  • Together they hold a majority of seats, making the government more stable than a minority.

  • Requires compromise and cooperation between parties

Party discipline

• Definition: The expectation that members of a political party (MPs) vote along party lines in the legislature.

• Strong in Canada weak/non existent in the US

• Purpose:

  • Ensures the party’s policies and platform are consistently supported.

  • Helps the government pass legislation without constant internal conflict.

• Consequence of breaking it:

  • MPs may face rebuke, loss of committee positions, or even expulsion from the party.

Executive (Canada)

• Who’s in it:

  • Prime Minister (head of government)

  • Cabinet ministers

  • Governor General (represents the monarch; formal executive power)

• Role:

  • Proposes and implements laws and policies.

  • Runs the daily business of government.

• Key Feature:

  • Fused with the legislature (the PM and Cabinet are usually elected MPs).

Legislative (Canada)

• Who’s in it:

  • Parliament, which includes:

    • House of Commons (elected MPs, cabinet, PM)

    • Senate (appointed members)

• Role:

  • Makes and debates laws.

  • Approves government spending.

  • Holds the executive accountable (e.g., confidence votes).

Judicial (Canada)

• Who’s in it:

  • Supreme Court of Canada and lower federal/provincial courts

  • Appointed and non partisan

• Role:

  • Interprets laws and the Constitution.

  • Ensures laws and government actions comply with the Charter of Rights & Freedoms.

• Key Feature:

  • Independent from the executive and legislative branches.

Executive (US)

• Who’s in it:

  • President (head of state and government)

  • Vice President

  • Cabinet and federal agencies

• Role:

  • Enforces and implements federal laws.

  • Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces.

  • Can veto laws passed by Congress.

• Key Feature:

  • Separate from the legislative branch.

Legislative (US)

• Who’s in it:

  • Congress, which includes:

    • House of Representatives (435 elected members representation by population)

    • Senate (100 elected members 2 per state)

• Role:

  • Makes federal laws.

  • Controls federal spending.

  • Can override presidential vetoes and impeach officials.

Judicial (US)

• Who’s in it:

  • Supreme Court of the United States and lower federal courts

  • Appointed partisan

• Role:

  • Interprets laws and the Constitution.

  • Can strike down laws or executive actions as unconstitutional.

  • Serves for life

• Key Feature:

  • Independent from the other two branches (checks and balances system).

Political parties in Canada 

Liberal Party of Canada

• Position: Centre to centre-left

Conservative Party of Canada

• Position: Centre-right to right

New Democratic Party (NDP)

• Position: Left-wing

Bloc Québécois

• Position: Quebec nationalist, centre-left

Green Party of Canada

• Position: Left-wing, environmentalist

Political parties in the US

Democratic Party

• Ideology: Generally center-left

Republican Party

• Ideology: Generally center-right

Passing legislation in Canada

1. Idea/Proposal – Cabinet or MP introduces a bill (Rejection of important legislation suggested by PM by a minority government can weaken the government or even trigger an election)

2. First Reading – Bill is introduced in the House of Commons; no debate yet.

3. Second Reading – General debate on the bill’s principles.

4. Committee Stage – Detailed examination; amendments may be made.

5. Report Stage – Committee reports back to the House; further amendments.

6. Third Reading – Final debate and vote in the House.

7. Senate – Bill goes through similar stages (House of Commons has more power; Senate rarely blocks bills).

8. Royal Assent – Governor General formally approves the bill; it becomes law.

Key Features

• Executive (Cabinet) drives most legislation.

• Majority governments can pass bills quickly.

• Minority governments must negotiate with other parties to pass bills.

Passing legislation in the US

1. Idea/Proposal – Anyone can suggest; a Congress member introduces the bill.

2. Committee Stage – Bill is sent to relevant committee(s) for study, hearings, and amendments.

3. House/Senate Votes – Bill must pass both the House of Representatives and the Senate (can differ in amendments).

4. Conference Committee – Resolves differences between House and Senate versions.

5. Final Approval – Both chambers approve the final version.

6. President – Signs the bill into law or vetoes it.

7. Override Veto – Congress can override with a two-thirds vote in both chambers.

Key Features

• President is separate from Congress; cannot directly introduce bills.

• Bills often require negotiation and compromise between parties (especially if different parties control the White House and Congress).

• Gridlock is common if the executive and legislative branches disagree.

Elected leaders in Canada

PM, MPs

Appointed leaders in Canada

senate, supreme court

Elected leaders in the US

President, vice president, HoR, senate

Appointed leaders in the US

supreme court

Bicameral Legislature

legislative branch with TWO chambers

Consensus Decision Making

sharing ideas to come up with a solution to a problem that as many
people as possible can accept

Constituency/Riding

geo area represented by a Member of Parliament

Constitutional Monarchy

monarchy with powers limited by constitution

Elected Senate

each state gets two, regardless of size and population

Electoral College

citizens vote for president – EC in each state nominates whoever wins the
popular vote in that state

Gridlock

checks and balances + no party discipline = law-making slow

Head of Government

the political leader of the government

Head of State

highest ranking person in a political system

Plurality

refers to the highest number of votes or seats

President cannot be removed

but powers are “checked” by Congress (he can only be impeached)

Veto

President can kill a bill (unless supported by 2/3 majority of Congress)

Vote of Non-Confidence

PM/Gov’t lose majority support of the House usually resulting in a new election

Cabinet Solidarity

Cabinet solidarity is the principle that all members of a cabinet must publicly support government decisions, even if they privately disagreed

Why judiciary should be independent 

Judicial independence is important because it guarantees that judges are free to decide honestly and impartially, in accordance with the law and evidence, without concern or fear of interference, control, or improper influence from anyone.

voter apathy

Voter apathy refers to a lack of interest or engagement in the political process and elections among citizens

• Unfair voting

• No interest in candidates

• Uninformed

Gerrymandering

the manipulation of an electoral constituency's boundaries so as to favor one party

Voter Suppression

The discouragement or prevention of specific groups of people from voting or registering to vote

Lobby groups

Organizations or individuals that advocate for a specific interest to influence government decisions, legislation, or public policy

Super PAC’s

A political organization that can raise and spend unlimited funds from corporations, unions, associations, and individuals to overtly advocate for or against a specific federal candidate. Unlike traditional PACs, Super PACs cannot donate money directly to candidates or coordinate with their campaigns, but they can engage in independent expenditures like running advertisements

Illiberalism

Rejection of liberal principles

the balance of rights and security

The balance of rights and security means ensuring public safety while protecting individual freedoms, so that measures taken to maintain security do not unjustly limit citizens’ rights.

WWI/WWII internment camps (WMA)

• 1914 legislation giving the government sweeping and unfettered power during wartime, insurrection, or emergency 

• PM/Cabinet had power to govern by decree- without approval of the House 

• Invoked during WWI and WWII to force internment of Ukrainians (WWI) and Japanese (WWII) as “enemy aliens”

FLQ

• Front de Liberation du Quebec (FLQ)- radical left-wing extremists who used violence

• October 1970- kidnapped two politicians to force release of FLQ members in prison 

• Only time WMA invoked outside of wartime 

• Military called in to patrol streets; hundreds of people accused of FLQ ties and arrested without charge 

• Pierre Laporte was later found murdered, James Cross eventually released, FLQ members located and arrested 

• Majority of Canadians (French/English) expressed support for Trudeau using WMA 

Patriot Act 9/11

• Response to the 9/11 terrorist attacks  

• Legislation giving government increased powers to address possible terrorist groups/plots 

• Security agencies given wide powers to monitor citizens, tap phones/internet, detain suspects  

• Police could spy and eavesdrop on people by intercepting phone calls and emails 

• Police could use trap and trace devices and do sneak and peak searches 

• 700-page bill passed by Congress in two days (House voted 357-66, Senate votes 98-1) 

• Sunset clause = Act expired in 2005; many parts extended or continued with modifications  

Canada anti-terrorism act

• Similar to the Patriot Act in giving police/security agencies increased powers- criticized as violating the Fundamental Freedoms and Equality Rights sections of the Charter  

• Expired in 2007 – Haper government wanted to renew but bill was defeated in the House 

• Opposition pressed for reforms – Harper eventually successful with Bill C-51 passing in Spring 2015 

Emergencies Act

• Created in 1988 (Mulroney PC government) 

• PM can declare a national emergency if: 

• It cannot be addressed by existing law 

• It is beyond the capabilities of principle government 

• It threatens the sovereignty of Canada  

• Before declaring a national emergency, the PM must consult with provincial government and pass a vote in the House of Commons  

• Public inquiry required on how Act was used 

War Measures Act

1914 legislation giving the government sweeping and unfettered power during wartime, insurrection, or emergency 

Trucker Convoy

• Convoy wanted to remove Trudeau government and replace it with a committee of Convoy protestors/organizers  

• 100s blocked Parliament Hill neighborhoods with trucks- staged “noise protests” harassed residents, damaged property

• PM Trudeau invoked the Emergencies Act – used mainly to freeze bank accounts and fundraising – also used by police to compel towing companies to help them move vehicles  

• Public inquiry held before a judge to determine if Trudeau government met legal threshold to invoke the Emergencies Act during the Ottawa occupation 

Propaganda

Media, arts, info censored/manipulated to glorify the leader/eliminate dissent 

Indoctrination 

Ruling ideology promoted through education and the targeting of youth; critical thought discouraged, regime beliefs woven into all aspects of learning 

Scapegoating 

Direction of discontent- singling out groups as threats, deflecting away from leader 

Use of force and terror 

Used to control/eliminate those who do not conform; secret police enforce the will of the government; prison camps, executions- create a climate of fear 

Controlled participation 

• Elections appear to be fair- political parties banned or controlled by the regime 

• Unions, citizen groups etc.- controlled to reflect the ruling ideology or banned 

• Public events orchestrated, controlled to create “unity” and glorification of the leader  

Treaty of Versailles-H

Country was destroyed by WWI and humiliating terms of the Treaty of Versailles (billions in reparation payments)

Political Instability-H

Political instability in Germany, marked by weak coalition governments and economic crises, created widespread disillusionment and allowed Hitler to present himself as a strong leader who could restore order and national pride.

Great Depression-H

The Great Depression contributed to Hitler’s rise to power by causing massive unemployment and economic despair in Germany, which made people more willing to support his promises of recovery, stability, and national revival.

Reichstag Fire

Germany Parliament burns down- Hitler blames the communists, asks for emergency powers to protect the nation  

Enabling Act

• Gave Hitler power to enact law by decree, sweeping powers to military/police 

• Hitler banned political parties, had opponents arrested and imprisoned