AP Psych Sem 1 All Terms

Acquisition

The initial stage of learning when a response is first established.

Albert Bandura

Psychologist known for the Bobo doll experiment and social learning theory-children learn aggressive behaviors through observation and imitation.

Association

Linking two stimuli or a behavior and its consequence.

Associative learning

Learning that certain events occur together (classical and operant conditioning).

Avoidance learning

Learning to PREVENT or avoid an unpleasant stimulus.

B.F. Skinner

Behaviorist who studied operant conditioning using reinforcement and punishment-skinner box where a pigeon learned how to respond to commands for food.

Babbling

Early speech stage in infants with spontaneous sounds.

Behavioral perspective

Focuses on observable behavior and environmental influences.

Biological preparedness

Tendency to learn certain associations more easily due to evolution.

Classical conditioning

Learning by associating a neutral stimulus with a reflexive response.

Cognitive maps

Mental representations of physical locations or layouts.

Conditioned response (CR)

Learned response to a previously neutral (now conditioned) stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Previously neutral stimulus that triggers a response after conditioning.

Extinction

Gradual weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response.

Continuous reinforcement

Reward given after every correct response.

Cooing

Early stage of infant language with vowel-like sounds.

Counterconditioning

Replacing an unwanted response with a new, desired response.

Escape learning

Learning to END an unpleasant stimulus.

Fixed interval

Reinforcement given after a fixed amount of time.

Fixed ratio

Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

Grammar

System of rules that governs language structure.

Higher-order conditioning

When a conditioned stimulus becomes linked to a new neutral stimulus.

Insight learning

Sudden realization of a problem's solution.

Instinctive drift

Tendency for learned behavior to revert to biological instincts.

Ivan Pavlov

Discovered classical conditioning using dogs and salivation.

John B. Watson

Founded behaviorism and conducted 'Little Albert' experiment.

Latent learning

Learning that occurs but isn't shown until reinforcement appears.

Law of Effect

Behaviors followed by rewards are more likely to recur.

Learned helplessness

Passive behavior due to repeated exposure to uncontrollable events.

Modeling

Learning by observing and imitating others.

Morphemes

Smallest meaningful units in language.

Negative reinforcement

Removing something unpleasant to increase behavior.

One-trial conditioning

Learning that occurs after a single pairing (e.g., taste aversion).

One-word stage

Language stage when toddlers speak mostly single words.

Operant conditioning

Learning based on consequences (reinforcements or punishments).

Overgeneralization

Misapplying grammar rules (e.g., 'goed' instead of 'went').

Overjustification effect

External rewards reduce intrinsic motivation.

Partial reinforcement

Reward given only sometimes after behavior.

Phonemes

Smallest units of sound in language.

Positive reinforcement

Adding something pleasant to increase behavior.

Primary reinforcers

Naturally rewarding stimuli (food, water).

Punishment

Adding or removing something to decrease behavior.

Reinforcement

Any consequence that strengthens behavior.

Reinforcement discrimination

Learning which behaviors are reinforced and which are not.

Reinforcement generalization

Responding similarly to similar situations where reinforcement occurred.

Scalloped graph

Pattern seen in fixed-interval schedules showing bursts of responses before reward.

Secondary reinforcers

Learned reinforcers (money, praise).

Semantics

Meaning of words and sentences.

Shaping

Gradually reinforcing steps toward a desired behavior.

Social learning theory

Learning through observation, imitation, and modeling.

Spontaneous recovery

Reappearance of an extinguished response after a pause.

Stimulus discrimination

Learning to respond differently to distinct stimuli.

Stimulus generalization

Responding similarly to stimuli resembling the conditioned one.

Superstitious behavior

Behavior mistakenly linked to reinforcement.

Syntax

Rules for combining words into sentences.

Taste aversion

Learned avoidance of food that caused sickness.

Telegraphic speech

Early speech with simple, short sentences.

Unconditioned response (UCR)

Natural reaction to an unconditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

Naturally triggers a response without learning.

Variable interval

Reinforcement given after unpredictable time intervals.

Variable ratio

Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses.

Vicarious conditioning

Learning through others' experiences or consequences.

Achievement tests

Measure what a person has already learned.

Aptitude tests

Predict future ability or potential to learn.

Chronological age

A person's actual age in years.

Construct validity

How well a test measures the concept it claims to measure.

Content validity

How well a test covers all parts of the material it should.

Convergent thinking

Narrowing down options to one best answer.

Crystallized Intelligence

Accumulated knowledge and verbal skills.

Emotional Intelligence (EQ)

Ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions.

Fluid Intelligence

Ability to reason quickly and solve new problems.

Fixed mindset

Belief that abilities and intelligence cannot change.

Flynn Effect

Steady rise in average IQ scores over decades.

g (general intelligence)

Spearman's idea of one overall mental ability.

Grit

Perseverance and passion toward long-term goals.

Growth mindset

Belief that intelligence can improve with effort.

Intelligence

Ability to learn, solve problems, and adapt.

Intelligence quotient (IQ)

Score comparing performance to others the same age: (mental age/age)*100.

Mental age

Intellectual performance level expressed as age.

Multiple Intelligences

Gardner's theory of independent types of intelligences.

Percentile score

Shows what percent of people scored below you.

Predictive validity

How well a test forecasts future performance.

Reliability

Consistency of test results.

Split-half reliability

Similarity of results between two halves of a test.

Standardization

Consistent administration conditions for all test-takers.

Stanford-Binet test

American IQ test based on Binet's original.

Triarchic theory

Sternberg's model of analytical, creative, and practical intelligence.

Stereotype lift

Boost in performance from positive group stereotypes.

Stereotype threat

Reduced performance due to fear of confirming a negative stereotype.

Test-retest reliability

Consistency of scores when the same test is taken again.

Validity

How well a test measures what it claims to measure.

WAIS/WISC

Wechsler intelligence tests for adults (WAIS) and children (WISC).

Z score

Number of standard deviations a score is above or below the mean.

Accommodation

Changing existing schemas to fit new information.

Algorithms

Step-by-step problem-solving procedures that guarantee a correct answer.

Alzheimer's disease

A progressive brain disorder causing memory loss and cognitive decline.

Anterograde amnesia

Inability to form new memories after a brain injury.

Assimilation

Fitting new information into existing schemas.

Autobiographical memory

Memories of personal life events.

Automatic processing

Encoding information unconsciously (like time or space).