Intro to Psychology

psychological science

the study of mind, brain, and behavior

culture

the beliefs, values rules, and customs that exist within a group of people who share a common language and environment and that are transmitted through learning from one generation to the next

nature/nurture debate

the arguments concerning whether psychological characteristics are biologically innate or acquired through education, experience, and culture

mind/body problem

a fundamental psychological issue that considers whether mind and body are separate and distinct or whether the mind is simply the subjective experience of the physical brain

evolutionary theory

in psychological science, a theory that emphasizes the inherited, adaptive value of behavior and mental activity throughout the history of species

adaptations

in evolutionary theory, the physical characteristics, skills, or abilities that increase the chances of reproduction or survival and are therefore likely to be passed along to future generations

natural selection

Darwin's theory that those who inherit characteristics that help them adapt to their particular environments have a selective advantage over those who do not

introspection

a systematic examination of subjective mental experiences that requires people to inspect and report on the content of their thoughts

structuralism

an approach to psychology based on the idea that conscious experience can be broken down into its basic underlying components or elements

stream of consciousness

a phrase coined by William James to describe one's continuous series of ever-changing thoughts

functionalism

an approach to psychology concerned with the adaptive purpose, or function, of mind and behavior

Gestalt theory

a theory based on the idea that the whole of personal experience is different from simply the sum of its constituent elements

unconscious

the mental processes that operate below the level of conscious awareness

psychoanalysis

a method developed by Sigmund Freud that attempts to bring the contents of the unconscious into conscious awareness so that conflicts can be revealed

behaviorism

a psychological approach that emphasizes the role of environmental forces in producing behavior

cognitive psychology

the study of how people think, learn, and remember

social psychology

the study of group dynamics in relation to psychological processes

cognitive neuroscience

the study of the neural mechanisms that underlie thought, learning, and memory

critical thinking

a systematic way of evaluating information to reach reasonable conclusions

scientific method

a systematic procedure of observing and measuring phenomena to answer questions about what happens, when it happens, what causes it, and why

theory

a model of interconnected ideas and concepts that explains what is observed and makes predictions about future

hypothesis

a specific prediction of what should be observed in the world if a theory is correct

research

scientific process that involves the systematic and careful collection of data

data

objective observations or measurements

replication

repetition of an experiment to confirm the results

variable

something in the world that can be measured and that can vary

naturalistic observation

a passive description study in which observers do not change or alter ongoing behavior

participant observation

a type of descriptive study in which the researcher is actively involved in the situation

descriptive studies

observing and classifying behavior

longitudinal studies

observing and classifying developmental changes that occur in the same people over time

cross-sectional studies

observing and classifying developmental changes that occur in different groups of people at the same time

observer bias

systematic errors in observation that occur because of an observer's expectation

experimenter expectancy effect

actual change in the behavior of the people or animals being observed that is due to observer bias

correlational study

a research method that examines how variables are naturally related in the real world, without any attempt by the researcher to alter them

directionality problem

when researchers find a relationship between two variables in a correlational study, they cannot determine which variable may have caused changes in the other variable

third variable problem

when the experimenter cannot directly manipulate the independent variable and therefore cannot be confident that another, unmeasured variable is not the actual cause of differences in the dependent variable

experiment

a study that tests casual hypotheses by measuring and manipulating variables

control group

the participants in a study that receive no intervention or an intervention different from the one being studied

experimental group

the participants in a study that receive the intervention

independent variable

in an experiment, the condition that is manipulated by the experimenter to examine its impact on the dependent variable

dependent variable

in an experiment, the measure that is affected by manipulation of the independent variable

confound

anything that affects a dependent variable and may unintentionally vary between the experimental conditions of a study

population

everyone in the group the experimenter is interested in

sample

a subset of a population

selection bias

when participants in different groups in an experiment differ systematically

random assignment

the procedure for placing research participants into the conditions of an experiment in which each participant has an equal chance of being assigned to any level of the independent variable

meta-analysis

a "study of studies" that combines the findings of multiple studies to arrive at a conclusion

culturally sensitive research

studies that take into account the ways culture affects thoughts, feelings, and actions

observational technique

a research method of careful and systematic assessment and coding of overt behavior

reactivity

when the knowledge that one is being observed alters the behavior being observed

self-support method

a method of data collection in which people are asked to provide information about themselves, such as in questionnaires or surveys

case study

a special type of observational/descriptive study that involves intensive examination of one person or a few individuals or one or a few organizations

response performance

a research method in which researchers quantify perceptual or cognitive processes in response to a specific stimulus

electroencephalogram (EEG)

a device that measures electrical activity in the brain

brain imaging

a range of experimental techniques that make brain structures and brain activity visible

positron emission tomography (PET)

a method of brain imaging that assesses metabolic activity by using a radioactive substance injected into the bloodstream

magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

a method of brain imaging that produces high-quality images of the brain

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

an imaging technique used to examine changes in the activity of the working human brain

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

the use of strong magnets to briefly interrupt normal brain activity as a way to study brain regions

institutional review boards (IRBs)

groups of people responsible for reviewing proposed research to ensure that it meets the accepted standards of science and provides for the physical and emotional well-being of research participants

validity

the extent to which the data collected address the research hypothesis in the intended

reliability

the extent to which a measure is stable and consistent over time in similar conditions

accuracy

the extent to which an experiment measure is free from error

descriptive statistics

overall summary of data

central tendency

a measure that represents the typical behavior of the group as a whole

mean

a measure of central tendency that is the arithmetic average of a set of numbers

median

a measure of central tendency that is the value in a set of numbers that falls exactly halfway between the lowest and highest values

mode

a measure of central tendency that is the most frequent score or value in a set of numbers

variability

in a set of numbers, how widely dispersed the values are from each other and from the mean

standard deviation

a statistical measure of how far away each value is, on average, from the mean

inferential statistics

a set of procedures used to make judgements about whether differences actually exist between sets of numbers

chromosomes

structures within the cell body that are made up of genes

gene

the unit of heredity that determines a particular characteristic in an organism

dominant gene

a gene that is expressed in the offspring whenever it is present

recessive gene

a gene that is expressed only when it is matched with a similar gene from the other parent

genotype

the genetic constitution determined at the moment of conception

phenotype

observational physical characteristics that result from both genetic and environmental influences

monozygotic twins

twin siblings who result from one zygote splitting in two and therefore share the same genes (identical twins)

dizygotic twins

twin siblings who result from two separately fertilized eggs (fraternal twins)

heritability

a statistical estimate of the variation, caused by differences in heredity, in a trait within a population

neuron

the basic unit of the nervous system; it operates through electrical impulses, which communicate with other neurons through chemical signals. They receive, integrate, and transmit information in the nervous system

sensory neurons

one of the three types of neurons, these afferent neurons detect information from the physical world and pass that information along the brain

motor neurons

one of the three types of neurons, these efferent neurons direct muscles to contract or relax, thereby producing movement

interneurons

one of the three types of neurons, these neurons communicate only with other neurons, typically within a specific brain region

dendrites

branchlike extensions of the neuron that detect information from other neurons

cell body

in the neuron, where information from thousands of other neurons is collected and processed

axon

a long narrow outgrowth of a neuron by which information is transmitted to other neurons

terminal buttons

small nodules, at the ends of axons, that release chemical signals from the neuron to the synapse

synapse

the site for chemical communication between neurons, which contains extracellular fluid

myelin sheath

a fatty material, made up of glial cells, that insulates the axon and allows for the rapid movement of electrical impulses along the axon

nodes of Ranvier

small gaps of exposed axon, between the segments of myelin sheath, where action potentials are transmitted

resting membrane potential

the electrical charge of a neuron when it is not active

action potential

the neural impulse that passes along the axon and subsequently causes the release of chemicals from the terminal buttons

all-or-none principle

the principle whereby a neuron fires with the same potency each time, although frequency can vary; it either fires or not--it cannot partially fire

neurotransmitter

a chemical substance that carries signals from one neuron to another

receptors

in neurons, specialized protein molecules, on the postsynaptic membrane, that neurotransmitters bind to after passing across the synaptic cleft

reuptake

the process whereby a neurotransmitter is taken back into the presynaptic terminal buttons, thereby stopping its activity

agonist

any drug that enhances the actions of a specific neurotransmitter

antagonist

any drug that inhibits the action of a specific neurotransmitter

acetylcholine (ACh)

the neurotransmitter responsible for motor control at the junction between nerves and muscles; also involved in mental processes such as learning, memory, sleeping, and dreaming