Spring 24 PSY 5708 Schmidt Organizational Psych Exam 2

What is the basic idea of control theory?

We compare where we are to where we want to be

What idea are discrepancies and negative feedback loops part of?

These things are central parts of control theory.

Is discrepancy monitoring/detection an automatic process?

It is sometimes not, but for the most part is.

What are positive feedback loops?

They aim to get distance from an undesired state.

What are positive feedback loops synonymous with?

They are also known as avoidance.

What is the aim of negative feedback loops?

They try to close the gaps between two states.

What term is synonymous with negative feedback loops?

The term is approach.

What large differences are there between the two kinds of loops in control theory?

There are little differences between them, it is just a matter of framing the statement.

How do motivational processes change between approach and avoidance goals?

There can be changes in goal prioritization and distinct affective consequences.

What kind of A-A goals do we tend to pursue?

We tend to prefer avoidance goals over approach.

What kinds of affective states can we expect from approach goals?

The two sides of the spectrum are elation and depression.

What kinds of affective states can we expect from avoidance goals?

The two sides of the spectrum are relief and anxiety.

What is the notion of goal hierarchies?

This concept refers to the structure of goal organization within an organization. There are superordinate goals, which can be broken down into subordinate goals.

What are superordinate goals?

These types of goals can be overarching, abstract, and broad.

What are subordinate goals?

These types of goals can be micro-level, specific, and short cycled.

What is meant by the phrase “means-end relationships” in goal setting?

Subordinate goals are the means to the end of superordinate goals. “How” vs. “why.”

In what ways do superordinate goals influence those in the lower levels?

They influence the referent level and therefore lower level goals, as well as sensitivity to feedback loops.

How often are lower level goals important in hierarchies and goal importance?

They can be sometimes, especially when their link to attainment is strong.

What kind of cycles do lower level goals tend to live on?

They tend to live on shorter cycles.

What are the key terms of Goal Systems Theory?

The two terms are Multifinality and Equifiniality.

What is the definition of multifinality?

To complete multiple goals with one means.

“To kill two birds with one stone.”

What is the definition of equifinality?

Where multiple means lead to the same goal.

“All roads leads to Rome.”

What is something that tends to transfer between means and goals?

Attributes (i.e. affect) tends to transfer.

What is self-efficacy?

It is one’s belief of their ability to complete a task.

How is self efficacy similar to and distinct from expectancy?

Self efficacy pertains to perceived ability, while expectancy pertains to perceived likelihood of outcome.

Does self-efficacy determine expectancy, or does expectancy determine self-efficacy?

Self-efficacy determines expectancy, as well as other factors like luck.

Is self-efficacy task specific or general?

It is task-specific.

Who advocated that self-efficacy is a task specific belief?

Bandura was the one who was adamant about this.

What is the connection between self-efficacy and performance?

-Positive effects observed across wide range of contexts and outcomes (Stajkovic & Luthans, 1998).

-It is the cornerstone of multiple motivation theories.

-Many interventions have been developed to increase self-efficacy.

Does SE exhibit between person variance or within person variance?

SE exhibits both types of variance.

In what way may SE exhibit between persons variance?

One example is that some individuals are more confident than others.

In what way may SE exhibit within persons variance?

One example is that any given individual is more confident on some occasions than on others.

What percent of variance is due to between persons differences in individuals average levels?

It is around 60% of variance.

What percent of variance is due to within persons fluctuations around average levels?

It is around 40% of variance.

What kind of effect is typically observed at between persons levels of SE?

A positive effect is typically observed. People with higher self-efficacy often perform better than others, but this does not indicate that a higher SE causes higher performance.

According to Control Theory, what kind of effect is observed at the within-persons level of SE?

A negative effect is typically observed. On occasions when an individual is more confident, they may have invested less effort and perform worse.

What is the first way that explains the variance between SE & Effort/Performance?

Prior performance and discrepancy as a moderator may be one explanation.

• When doing poorly, low SE → more effort and performance

• When doing well, high SE → less effort and performance

What is the second way that explains the variance between SE & Effort/Performance?

Goal difficulty as a moderator may be one explanation.

• With difficult goal, high SE → more effort.

• With easy goal, high SE → less effort.

What is the third way that explains the variance between SE & Effort/Performance?

Individual differences in average levels of SE may be one explanation.

• More confident individuals may reduce effort when SE increases.

• But depends on goal difficulty; with difficult goal, opposite was seen.

What is the fourth way that explains the variance between SE & Effort/Performance?

Performance ambiguity may be one explanation.

• Relationship between SE and effort/performance relationship turns towards the negative.

What is the fifth way that explains the variance between SE & Effort/Performance?

Resource scarcity may be one explanation.

• When resources are scarce, high SE → putting in less resources (conserving for subsequent use).

What are some ways we might reduce a discrepancy between motivations and goals?

To reduce, we may…

• Increase effort.

• Decrease goal.

• Change strategies.

What factors determine which route we take in order to reduce a discrepancy?

• Expectancy and SE

  • Attributions

    • Magnitude and/or persistence of discrepancy.

• Valence

  • Alternative means.

• Individual differences (goal orientation, need for achievement, locus of control).

Is goal abandonment an inherently bad thing?

No, it is not always a negative thing.

What are some things that we may do when we meet a goal?

• Set a higher goal (upward goal revision/discrepancy production)?

• Coast? Reallocate? 

• But this in an under-researched topic

What is meant by “behavioral management”?

Behaviors that positively affect performance must be contingently reinforced.

What are some of the most common reinforcers of behavioral management at work?

Contingently administered money, feedback, and social recognition are some of the most common ways.

What are the core ideas of reinforcement theory?

• Antecedent-behavior-consequence contingencies

• Positive reinforcement

• Negative reinforcement

• Positive punishment

• Negative punishment

Do money, feedback, and social recognition impact work performance?

Money improved performance 23%, social recognition 17%, and feedback 10%. However, the combination of these things are greater than the sum of their parts.

What role does leadership play in motivation?

In terms of motivation, they can

• Set goals

• Determine commitment

• Connect goals to intrinsic interest

• Provide feedback and/or shape interpretation and response to feedback.

• Provide prioritization of information.

What is a planning fallacy?

A tendency to underestimate how long something will take.

What does JDM stand for?

It stands for judgement and decision making.

What is the definition of normative (prescriptive) models while in use of explaining JDM?

The definition is what good/rational decision makers should do.

What is the definition of behavioral (descriptive) models while in use of explaining JDM?

The definition is what decision makers actually do.

What is the definition of choice in terms of JDM?

The definition, in terms of this, is how do people make decisions with uncertain probabilities.

What is the traditional focus of choice?

It is the comparison of actual choices against “optimal choices” based on actual probabilities, values, etc. It asks how people differ from objective rationality.

What is the definition of judgement in terms of JDM?

The definition involves asking how do people transform information in the environment into judgements about the future.

What is the prime focus of judgement?

The focus is in viewing people as intuitive staticians who make judgements based on how they perceive environmental cues may be related to one another. (How do people perceive and then adapt to the environment?)

What is the central concept of choice decision-making?

The concept at hand is expected value (or utility).

How can we determine the attractiveness of a choice option?

Value of Outcome x Likelihood of its Occurrence.

What is subjective expected utility?

It is the diminishing perceived value as gains/losses increase/decrease.

(The difference between $1000 and $2000 vs. difference between $100,000 and $101,000.

When dealing with big dollar differences, we often ignore the difference, but not when that same difference is at lower levels).

What is risk aversion?

This is when one chooses the sure thing over an option with an uncertain outcome.

What is risk seeking?

This is when one chooses the uncertainty over a sure thing.

Are people generally risk seeking or risk averse?

The overall tendency is for risk aversion, but there is considerable variance in this tendency.

Under what conditions are people more likely to be risk seeking?

People tend to be more risk taking when trying to avoid losses than to attain gains.

What is Prospect Theory?

This theory states that people tend to be more risk taking when trying to avoid losses rather than to attain gains.

What does the Prospect Theory Utility Function look like visually?

The function looks like a four quadrant graph with a loose S line bisecting the origin.

• The y-axis represents value, or how much one cares.

• The x-axis represents losses on the left, gains on the right.

What is our frame of reference when we make decisions?

Individuals generally consider decisions as gains or losses as a frame of reference, not as total wealth. We consider the change from our starting point, not like money numbers

What are some implications of loss aversion for gains and risk seeking for losses?

We can tend to follow the essence of this phrase: “Sell winners too early and ride losers too long.”

This involves sunk cost fallacies where we dig the ole deeper to try to get out of it.

What is the framing effect?

They way information is presented can change people’s baseline position, which in turn can change the way they make decisions that are presented to them.

What is inaction inertia?

This is the tendency where, after initially passing on a good option, one is then likely to pass on a slightly worse, but still good option in the future. The first changed your baseline.

How does loss aversion tie into motivation and emotion?

Loss aversion maps well onto notions of approach and avoidance in motivation. Approach or avoidance goals often differ in risk taking in pursuit of that goal.

What kind of presentation leads to more accurate estimates of likelihood?

Frequencies often lead to more accurate estimates than percentages.

(Prefer options with higher frequencies even if probability is the same—prefer to try to draw black marble when is is 10 out 100 than 1 out of 10).

What is one example that demonstrates how people prefer to avoid ambiguity?

Sometimes, hiring managers devalue applicants with missing information (such as test scores).

What are some ways that people overestimate themselves?

When reflecting on their own abilities, people often..

• Hold unrealistically positive review of themselves and their performance

• Overestimate what they know

• Overestimate the chances that a new business will succeed

• Generally believe that they will be happier and more successful than their pees

• Overestimation may give a sense of control and well being

What is temporal discounting?

This is the significant discount of outcomes that are delayed.

What is a heuristic?

This is a cognitive shortcut.

What is representativeness?

This heuristic bases decisions on how much it is like other situations.

What is the availability heuristic?

This is where one bases decisions on easily accessible information.

What is the primacy heuristic?

This is basing decisions on what comes first.

What is the recency heuristic?

This is basing decisions on what came most recently.

Can you think too much about a decision?

Yes, if it causes us to focus less on relevant info (dilution effect) and/or too much irrelevant info (decoy effect).

What is the central issue of the Highhouse article on Stubborn Reliance on Intuition?

They wanted to investigate what was the most effective method to use for employee selection.

What was perceived as the most and least effective method for employee selection in the Highhouse article?

Perceived most effective: Unstructured Interviews.

Perceived least effective: General Mental Aptitude test.

What was the actual most and least effective method for employee selection in the Highhouse article?

Actual most effective: Specific Aptitude Test.

Actual least effective: Unstructured Interviews.

What ratio of HR professionals believe that unstructured interviews are effective versus not?

3:1 HR professionals believe that they can read between the lines from informal discussions. They over-emphasize certain aspects.

What are some of the implicit beliefs that inhibit adoption of selection decision aids?

People often believe that selection is not probabilistic, and it is subject to error versus their own judgements.

Does adding intuition to testing and other hard data improve prediction?

No, it typically reduces validity by adding more noise (diluting valid predictors).

What are “broken leg cures”?

These are idiosyncratic characteristics of participants job candidates that might not be captured by a mechanical approach. However, a problem is that we rely on them too much.

What are data combination methods, and why do they matter?

How to combine multiple pieces of information to make a judgement. They are central to decisions such as admissions, selection, promotion, etc.

What are two general approaches to data combination in an applicant context?

The two approaches are mechanical and clinical.

What is the mechanical approach for data combination?

This is using actuarial and algorithmic methods.

What is the clinical approach for data combination?

This approach uses holistic, intuitive, and subjective judgement rather than formula.

What approach is more useful for combining data?

The mechanical approach is typically superior to human judgement. People are better at data collection than data combination.

What are some ways that holistic judgement can go awry?

In using this judgement tactic, people can often not use all relevant cues, not combine them in an optimal manner, and be inconsistent in its application.

What was the aim of the Kuncel et al. article?

They wished to investigate the magnitude of advantages of using mechanical vs. clinical judgements.

What were the key results of the Kuncel et al. (2013) article?

They found that in predicting job performance, the difference between the validity of the mechanical and holistic data combination methods translated into an improvement in prediction of more than 50%.

“Consistency is key, even if the method is bad.”

What do attitudes and affect have in common?

They are both evaluative constructs; they are how we think or feel about things.

What are attitudes?

They are cognitive evaluations of objects that do not necessary evoke emotional expereinces.

(Ex. “I think that the Olympics are good.”)