AP Psychology Semester 1 - Units 0-3A

abstract thinking

thinking characterized by the use of general ideas or concepts rather than immediate experiences and specific objects/events

accommodation

Adapting our current understanding (schemas) to incorporate new information.

adolescence

the period in human development that starts with puberty (10-12 years of age) and ends with physiological maturity (approximately 19 years of age), although the exact age span varies across individuals.

adverse childhood experiences (ACES)

stressful events that can occur in childhood and have long-term impacts on health, opportunity, and well-being

animism

The belief that natural phenomena or inanimate objects are alive or possess lifelike characteristics, such as intentions, desires, and feelings.

anxious attachment

Pattern in which an infant becomes anxious before the primary caregiver leaves, is extremely upset during his or her absence, and both seeks and resists contact on his or her return.

assimilation

Interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas.

attachment

An emotional tie with another person; shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.

attachment styles

The characteristic way people relate to others in the context of intimate relationships. Theoretically, the degree of attachment security in adults is related directly to how well they bonded to others as children. These include secure and insecure (avoidant, anxious, and disorganized).

authoritarian parenting style

Style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child.

authoritative parenting style

Parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making.

autonomy and shame and doubt

Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes the negative outcome.

avoidant attachment

Infants who seem unresponsive to the parent when they are present, are usually not distressed when she leaves, and avoid the parent when they return

chronosystem

in ecological systems theory, changes and continuities occurring over time that influence an individual's development. These influences include normative life transitions (e.g., school entry, marriage, retirement), nonnormative life transitions (e.g., divorce, winning the lottery, relocation), and the cumulative effects of the entire sequence of transitions over the life course.

contact comfort

The positive effects experienced by infants or young animals when in close proximity to soft materials.

concrete operational stage

Piaget's theory - cognitive development during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about objective events (6-7 to 11).

conservation

The principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects.

continuous vs. discontinuous development

An issue in developmental psychology concerning whether development occurs gradually or in distinct stages.

critical/sensitive period

An optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development.

cross-sectional research

A study in which people of different ages are compared with one another.

crystallized intelligence

Our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age.

dementia

A chronic or persistent disorder of the mental processes caused by brain disease or injury and marked by memory disorders, personality changes, and impaired reasoning.

disorganized attachment

A child with a disorganized/disoriented attachment style seems to have an inconsistent way of coping with the stress of the strange situation. The child may cry during the separation, but avoid the mother when she returns, or the child may approach the mother but then freeze or fall to the floor.

ecological systems theory

A body of theory and research concerned with the processes and conditions that govern the course of human development in the environments in which human beings live.

egocentrism

In Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view.

emerging adulthood

For some people in modern cultures, a period from the late teens to mid-20s, bridging the gap between adolescent dependence and full independence and responsible adulthood.

exosystem

in ecological systems theory, those societal structures that function largely independently of the individual but nevertheless affect the immediate context within which they develop. They include the government, the legal system, and the media.

fine motor coordination

Activities or skills that require coordination of small muscles to control small, precise movements, particularly in the hands and face. Examples include handwriting, drawing, cutting, and manipulating small objects.

fluid intelligence

Our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood.

formal operational stage

Piaget's theory - cognitive development during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts (begins around 12).

gender

A social construct and generally based on the norms, behaviors, and societal roles expected of individuals based primarily on their sex.

generativity and stagnation

Erikson's stage of social development during middle adulthood, interpreted in terms not only of procreation but also of creativity and fulfilling one's full parental and social responsibilities toward the next generation, in contrast to a narrow interest in the self, or self-absorption.

gross motor coordination

Activities or skills that use large muscles to move the trunk or limbs and control posture to maintain balance. Examples include waving an arm, walking, hopping, and running.

hypothetical thinking

imagining possibilities and exploring their consequences through a process of mental simulation.

identity moratorium

The experimental period of adolescence in which, during the task of discovering who one is as an individual separate from family of origin and as part of the broader social context, young people try out alternative roles before making permanent commitments to an identity. Adolescents who are unsuccessful at negotiating this stage risk confusion over their role in life.

identity achievement

Ideally, development moves toward identity achievement status, characterized by evidence of both identity exploration and commitment; this status is related to stable self-esteem and healthy psychological functioning.

identity and role confusion

Erikson's stage during which teenagers and young adults search for and become their true selves. The individual may "try on" different roles and identify with different groups before forming a cohesive, positive identity that allows him or her to contribute to society; alternatively, the individual may identify with outgroups to form a negative identity or may remain confused about his or her sense of identity.

identity diffusion

A possible outcome of the identity versus identity confusion stage; whereby the individual emerges with an uncertain sense of identity and confusion about their wishes, attitudes, and goals.

identity foreclosure

Premature commitment to an identity: the unquestioning acceptance by individuals (usually adolescents) of the role, values, and goals that others (e.g., parents, close friends, teachers, athletic coaches) have chosen for them. The individual's commitment to the foreclosed identity—for example, that of an athlete—occurs without exploring its value or contemplating alternative roles that might be more appropriate for them.

imaginary audience

Adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern.

imprinting

The process by which certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life.

industry and inferiority

Erikson's stage between 6 and 11 years, during which the child learns to be productive and to accept evaluation of his or her efforts or becomes discouraged and feels incompetent.

initiative and guilt

Erikson's third stage in which the child finds independence in planning, playing and other activities. The child learns to believe in his or her ability to successfully pursue goals. However, if these pursuits often fail or are criticized, the child may develop instead a feeling of regret.

insecure attachment

Demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness.

integrity and despair

In this stage of late adulthood, the individual reflects on the life he or she has lived and may develop a sense of satisfaction in having lived a good life and the ability to approach death with equanimity or may develop a feeling of bitterness about opportunities missed and time wasted, and a dread of approaching death.

intimacy and isolation

Erikson's stage in which individuals form deeply personal relationships, marry, begin families; if they do not, they will feel alone.

longitudinal study

A research approach that follows a group of people over time to determine change or stability in behavior.

macrosystem

in ecological systems theory, the level of environmental influence that is most distal to the developing individual and that affects all other systems. It includes the values, traditions, and sociocultural characteristics of the larger society.

maturation

Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.

menarche

The first incidence of menstruation in a female, marking the onset of puberty.

menopause

The time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.

symbolic thinking

A stage when a child is able to mentally represent an object that is not present, and a dependence on perception in problem solving.

mesosystem

In ecological systems theory, the groups and institutions outside the home (e.g., day care, school, a child's peer group) that influence the child's development and interact with aspects of the microsystem (e.g., relations in the home).

microsystem

Within ecological systems theory, the layer closest to the child and contains the structures with which the child has direct contact. This encompasses the relationships and interactions a child has with her immediate surroundings

nature and nurture

The issue over the relative contributions of hereditary and constitutional factors (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) to the development of an individual.

object permanence

The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.

parallel play

play that involves interacting with others for fun or sport.

permissive parenting style

A parenting style that allows freedom, lax parenting that doesn't set limits or enforce rules constantly.

personal fable

a belief in one's uniqueness and invulnerability, which is an expression of adolescent egocentrism and may extend further into the lifespan.

possible selves

a mental representation of what one could become. These may be positive, providing an image of what to strive for, or negative, providing an image of something to be avoided

preoperational stage

Piaget's theory - a child learns language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations iinvolving objective logic (2 to 6-7).

pretend play

make-believe play that includes an "as-if" orientation to actions, objects, and peers. It often involves playing a distinct role (e.g., mother/father, teacher, etc.).

primary sex characteristics

The body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.

puberty

Period of sexual maturation in which one is capable of reproducing.

racial/ethnic identity

an individual's sense of being defined, in part, by membership in a particular racial or ethnic group

infant reflexes

a set of muscle reactions that happen automatically in response to a certain type of stimulation but that disappears as the child grows older

religious identity

a sense of group membership to a religion and the importance of this group membership as it pertains to one's self-concept

reversibility

In Piagetian theory, a mental operation that reverses a sequence of events or restores a changed state of affairs to the original condition. For example, understanding that a glass of milk poured into a bottle can be poured back into the glass and remain unchanged.

rooting reflex

A baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple.

scaffolding

According to Vgotsky, a framework that offers children temporary support as they develop higher levels of thinking.

schema

Concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.

secondary sex characteristics

Nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.

secure attachment

Demonstrated by infants who comfortably explore environments in the presence of their caregiver, show only temporary distress when the caregiver leaves, and find comfort in the caregiver's return.

sensorimotor stage

Piaget's theory - infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and physical activities (birth - 2).

separation anxiety

The fear of unfamiliar people which is demonstrated around 8 months of age.

sexual orientation

One's enduring sexual attraction to male partners, female partners, both, or otherwise.

social clock

The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.

spermarche

A male's first ejaculation of semen.

stability and change

In developmental psychology, this issue concerns the extent to which personal factors (e.g., personality, intelligence, skills) remain constant across the lifespan or change as people age

stages of psychosocial development

according to Erik Erikson, personality development occurs as individuals progress through a series of eight conflicts influenced by social and cultural factors throughout the lifespan

temperament

A person's characteristics emotional reactivity and intensity.

teratogen

An agent that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.

theory of mind

People's ideas about their own and other's mental states - about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.

trust and mistrust

Erikson's first stage during the first year of life, infants learn to count on others when they are cared for in a consistent warm manner.

visual cliff

An apparatus to investigate the development of depth perception in nonverbal human infants and in nonhuman animals.

zone of proximal development

According to Vygotsky, the difference between what children can do with assistance and what they can do alone.

babbling

A stage of early language development when baby makes consonant-vowel or vowel-consonant sounds, such as "ma", "da" or "um".

cooing

vowel-like sounds produced by young infants when they are seemingly happy and contented

critical/sensitive period

An optimal period shortly after birth when an organism's exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces proper development.

grammar

A system if rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others

language

Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

morphemes

In a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word

one-word stage

The stage in speech development, from about 1-2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words`

overgeneralization of language rules

Applying grammar rules in areas they don't apply

phoneme

In language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

semantics

The set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language

syntax

The rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences in a given language

telegraphic speech

Early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram using mostly nouns and verbs.

apparent movement

an illusion of motion or change in size of a visual stimulus

attention

a state in which an individual is focused on certain aspects of the environment rather than on others