Middle Eastern History - Final

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Horde/Orda

a group of people, typically of Mongol descent, that is similar to the idea of a ‘tribe’. The horde refers to the military, the court, and the people of a group of interconnected Mongols.

Qazaqliq

A life of “frontier freedom” that consists of a warrior-nomadic lifestyle. Qazaqs did not subject themselves to a ruler or government. Shows how under these empires there were breakaway civilizations, which leads to less stability. Many Qazaqs joined in armies

Hulegu Khan

Grandson of Ghengis Khan who expanded Mongol territory. He sacked Baghdad, ended the Islamic Golden Age and the Abbassid Caliphate. This fragmented the power in the region and shattered the symbolic unity of the Abbassids, allowing the Mamluks to rise up in response to his expansion. He also founded the Ilkhanate, a dynasty that further shifted the balance by blending mongol culture with persian-islamic culture, shifting the place of the culture of the Abbassid empire and laying the groundwork for the cultural revival in the area later. He also connected the asia to europe.

Battle of Ayn Jalut

Named for the Spring it was fought near, the Battle of Ayn Jalut was a battle where the Mongols and the Mamluks of Egypt clashed. The Mongols were on the road to capturing the capitals of the Islamic world, having already done so to Abbassid Baghdad and Ayyubid Damascus, but were halted in Egypt, halting the Mongol advances into Africa and Europe.

Paisa

A metal tag that allowed merchants and others safe passage though the empire, specifically via a postage route that had stops along the way for food, rest, and exchange of horses. This streamlined trade, making it faster, and connected the mediterranean to the middle east to china. This isnerted the mongols as a major power one must pass through for trade.

Yassa

The Mongol law; started with likely verbal laws from Ghengis Khan for war and later codified to include civic matters. Follows a Chinese tradition, where each new ruler created a new legal code, even though it was seen as weak by Chinese standards. This was still seen as secondary to Shari’a, or God’s law.

Bubonic Plague

Deadly disease caused by Yersinia Pestis that spread across the empire due to mongol trade routes. Originated in China, carried by marmots, whom the mongols bred, ate, and used for fur and leather. Thus,it spread across their empire. Deadliest superspreader was the 1349 Haag, which killed ⅓ of meccas population and shook islamic faith, as mohammed said mecca would be protected from plague by god after the plague of justinian. Plague also caused famine, not just by killing so many people, but animals too. 3 types; bubonic (lymph nodes affected), septicemic (bloodstream affected, most deadly), and pneumonic (lungs affected).

Moghulistan

Breakaway from the Chagatai Khanate that referred to an area occupied by a group of people that were a mix of muslim turkish and mongol descent. They often clashed with the more sedentary timurid dynasty, which showed the struggle in mongol expansion in adapting to sedentary lifestyle.

Timurid Renaissance

After multiple conquests from various khanates, the Timurid dynasty witnessed a revival of science and culture, with a revival of classic persian arts. When conquering cities, timurid spared artisans and scientists and exported them.

Pope Urban II

The pope that sanctioned the first crusade. In 1095 he goes to Clermont in France and gives a speech where he declared it. He believes the knights should go on an armed pilgrimage to liberate the Holy Land from Muslim rule. He says that it would count as penance for sins, heaven is a reward. May have tried to outsource the violence that was happening to Europe to create peace. His story was written after Jerusalem fell, so who's knows what he said. Maybe he was just sending mercenaries on behalf of Byzantines to reclaim the land they just lost to the Seljuks.

Franks

A Germanic, proto-French people who settled in the Middle East after fighting for Europe in the crusades. They start to absorb the culture and understand the people who actually live there. This begats a division between crusaders. Crusaders are not a monolith, and it's not just Christians vs Muslims, it's sometimes everyone vs everyone

Nur al-Din

Muslim ruler who fiught in the crusades. He inherited Aleppo from his father, unified syria by taking control of damascus, and was determined to take muslim lands back from christian invaders. He also set the motions for Saladin to come to power in egypt. In a time where muslim identity is fractured, he erected schools of islamic thought and strengthed muslim identity. He was the first one to halt crusaders and set up saladin to fight them.

Battle of Hattin

Huge win for Saladin; crusaders were divided and muslims were united. Fought near Hattin, crusaders were headed to relieve Tiberias of an attack by Saladin, but were caught divided, weak from lack of water, and unable to fend off Saladin. Saladin shortly retook Jerusalem and shattered crusader hold in the region. Marked the end of crusader control in the Levant

(Saint) Louis IX

King of France and canonized Saint who faced death furing the 7th and 8th crusades. Signifigant losses that exemplify how muslims had reasserted their dominance at this point and crusaders had lost power.

Bahri Mamluks

rulers of Egypt that were once slaves of Turkic origin, but rose to power through military service under the Auyubids. Similar to how mamluks functioned under the abbassids. After the fall of the Auyubids , they consolidated power and asserted themselves as the ruling class, founding the Mamluks sultanate. Instrumental to conserving Muslim lands and rule; halted the mongol expansion of Helehu Khan at the Battle of Ayn Jalut and expelled the remaining crusaders out of the Levant. Key group in maintaining Muslim assertion in the region.

Shajar al-Durr

Widow to the last Auyubids sultan, who died during the second crusade, and later the wife of the first Mamluk sultan. Notable for essentially being the transfer of power from Auyubids to Mamluks, and in between husbands, legitimately ruled Egypt. Short reign, but essential in keeping the balance under the pressure of the crusades during the transfer of dynasties.

Madrasa

schools of Islamic thought in Egypt under the Mamluks. Promoted Islamic culture and excellence, which combated the fragmentation that was happening in other parts of the Muslim world.

Madhhab

school of Islamic law. There branches off to be several, which showcased a flexibility in order to receive stability. By having various schools with varied interpretation, tolerance towards different interpretations of Islam was allowed, allowing for unity and less hostility between those of different interpretations of the religion.

Tariqa

a Sufi spiritual path or brotherhood. It refers to an organized order of Islamic mystics who follow a specific method of spiritual practice under the guidance of a Sufi master (shaykh or murshid), with the ultimate goal of achieving closeness to God. This spread Islam further by allowing for less academic interpretation and more emotional, mystic ones, which was more inclusive to those who were not scholarly. Spiritual anchor in times of instability.

Monsoon

Monsoons are seasonal wind patterns, particularly over the Indian Ocean, that bring predictable periods of rain and dry weather. When understood, they offered a trade advantage in order for quicker, easier trade. To head towards India in the summer and back in the winter made use of the predictable winds. By allowing the Middle East to travel to India and the East African coast, not just trade, but Islam and Islamic ideas and culture spread.

Dhow

trading vessel made to navigate monsoon winds. With one or more masts holding triangular sails, it was effective in utilizing predictable monsoon winds for quick and effective naval trade. This allowed the Islamic empires, which were historically land based, to expand into the sea and reach coastal areas in order to expand trade. Expanding trades brings along Islamic culture and religion as well.

Abraham ibn Yiju

Jewish Islamic merchant who resided on the Indian Coast for decades. Showcases the reach of the empire, the interconnectedness of the empire, and how Jewish merchants, despite being of a different ethnoreligion, could form new ties with people across the empire.

Ghurids

Muslim dynasty of Iranian origin that pushed into the Indian Subcontinent with their military campaign. Bridges the earlier ghaznavids to the later Delhi sultanate and laid the groundwork for long term Muslim rule and influence into the Indian Subcontinent and spread persoislamic culture. Governed by Islamic laws

Chishtis

A Sufi brotherhood (tariqa) that took hold on India not through religious power but by religious influence. Taught love, acceptance, service to humanity. Fused Islamic religion with everyday Indian cultural life

Sahel

A semi-arid transitional zone south of the Sahara but north of the Savannahs. Functioned as an important trade route for trading salt, gold, and slaves, but also cultural exchange and exchange of knowledge. Connected the middle East into Africa and saw exchange of Islamic, Berber, and native African cultures and ideas. Connected important Muslim African empires, such as Mali, to the larger Muslim world.

Tuareg

A Berber group who integrated some aspects of Islamic culture, but primarily maintained their own culture. Despite not really being integrated culturally, they played a key role in caravan trading on the trans saharan route, showing how even operating outside of the empire culturally they still played a role

Mansa Musa

Emperor of the Mali empire in West Africa. Completed a famous Hagg in 1324 in which he gave away so much gold that legend has it that local economies were disrupted. Sponsored education and cultural arts, sponsoring Timbuktu and madrasas. Highlighted economic importance of West Africa and strengthened ties between West Africa and the Islamic heartlands.

Kilwa Kisiwani

Swahili city state part of the Swahili coast trading network. Showcased East Africa's rise into the trading network of the Islamic world and how Islam spread through trade. Trade from Africa, India, China, middle east

The Golden Rhino

a one horned rhino sculpture recovered in Africa. Wooden frame, gold covering. One horn, but African rhinos have two, indicating it actually originated from India and was traded into Africa. Evidence of trade between Africa and India in the Islamic world.

Gun-Powder Empire

Term used to refer to Islamic empires of Safavids, Ottomans, and Mughals. Islamic empires that used cannons and gunpowder technology to consolidate power and unite people groups into an empire. Technological advancement that placed Islamic empires as world leaders, even after the fracturing that the mongol invasions brought. Centralized governments and large military

Millet

associated w Ottomans; have a huge diverse empire, and a millet is a system to create religiously autonomous community to be protected, called millets. There are no multiple Muslim millets; Ottomans want to define one kind of Islam, not multiple like Shiites and Kharijites. These contain laws about marriage, inheritance-- civil laws that correspond with the religion and they can practice their religious laws

Timar

Ottoman land grants for military service. Inspired loyalty to the empire. Also allowed for more governance over expanding territory and gave incentive to take and protect that territory.

Janissary

young Christian boys who were taken from family, converted, and trained into an elite fighting force. Shows how the Ottomans integrated conquered peoples and pushed Islam, effectively slowing the growth of Christianity. Good for stability brought by a dominant religion.

Shaykh al-Islam

Highest ranking religious and legal leader, giving advice to the sultan and issuing religious legal opinions. Shows how Ottomans blending religion with legality and law.

Imamzadeh

Tombs for descendants of Imams, who are Shi’a divinely appointed religious leaders and infallible guides. Places of Pilgirmage. Connects religion to Safavid political authority. Highlights importance of family history, something that dates back to pre-islamic Arabia.

Shaykh Safi al-Din Ardabill

Led a sufi order known as the Safiyya and laid the groundwork for the Safavids to rise to power. Spread of Sufism through the region. Used for state ideaology in the establishment of Twelver Islam, where he was considered Shi’i

Battle of Chaldiran

Battle between the Sunni Ottomans and Shi’a Safavids where the Ottomans crushed the Safavids with their gunpowder technology. Set the permanent boundary of Safavid Iran. This defeat inspired theSafavids to modernize their army. De-legimatized the Shah and his divine ruler status was questioned. Ottomans affirmed as ruling power and Sunni as ruling sect

Maydan-e Shah/Maydan-e Nashq-e Jahn

Centerpiece for Shah Abbas I’s new imperial capital. Surrounded by two mosques, a palace, and a bazaar, the square was a symbol of state power and directly connected the state to religion and commerce. Everything was the state.

New Julfan Armenians

Community of Armenian merchants relocated by Shah Abbas I during his campaign against the Ottomans. He funneled merchants and artisans out of the frontiers and into Isfahan. Established an Armenian suburb called New Julfa which became a bustling trade center. Effectively sourcing trade into the Safavid empire.