Learning Test - Psychology

Physiological measures

Measures that involve recording any of a wide variety of physiological processes, including heart rate and blood pressure, galvanic skin response, hormone levels, and electrical activity and blood flow in the brain.

Change in heart rate

Measures the increase or decrease in the number of heartbeats per minute, measurable with an electrocardiogram (ECG).

Galvanic skin response (GSR)

Measures the autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity to gauge a person's arousal level.

Change in skin temperature

Measured by placing a thermistor at the end of one of the fingers and holding it in place with thin, porous tape.

Advantages of physiological measures

They are more objective than subjective measures and many behavioural measures; they are a continuous measure, allowing observation of time-varying qualities.

Disadvantages of physiological measures

Several different stimuli could produce the same changes; physiological levels vary widely from person to person; cost of monitoring equipment and data recording.

Subjective measures

Focus on assessing the conscious recognition of one's own emotions, such as checklists and rating scales.

Checklists

A 'did' or 'did not' or complete/incomplete approach.

Rating scales

Combine the simplicity of a checklist with a more specific level of achievement.

Advantages of subjective measures

They can provide valuable insights into a person's thoughts, emotions, and perceptions; they are easier and cheaper to administer.

Disadvantages of subjective measures

Bias can impact outcomes due to personal opinions or preferences; they are more susceptible to interpretation compared to objective examinations.

Mixed methods research design

A procedure for collecting, analysing, and mixing both quantitative and qualitative methods in a single study or a series of studies to understand a research problem.

Advantages of mixed methods

Allow for a more thorough exploration; help validate findings through triangulation; offer flexibility to address different aspects of a research question.

Disadvantages of mixed methods

Require more resources in terms of time, effort, and money; integrating findings can be challenging; requires expertise in both quantitative and qualitative analysis.

Replacement in animal research

Avoid or replace animal use by using non-animal methods whenever possible to achieve the same scientific objective.

Examples of replacement methods

Cell cultures, computer models/simulations, organs-on-a-chip, volunteer studies, and using lower organisms.

Reduction in animal research

Minimize the number of animals used while still obtaining valid, statistically significant data.

Goal of reduction

Encourages better experimental design to get more information from fewer animals.

Reduction

Improving scientific precision by reducing numbers without compromising quality.

Statistical planning

Using power analysis to determine the smallest sample size needed for reliable results.

Data sharing

Collaborating and sharing results to avoid repeated use of animals for similar studies.

Longitudinal studies

Measuring changes over time in the same animals rather than using new animals at each time point.

Improved technologies

Imaging tools like MRI that allow repeated measurement from the same animal.

Refinement

Minimizing pain, suffering, and distress to enhance animal welfare.

Pain management

Using anaesthesia and analgesia properly to prevent and treat pain.

Training animals

Teaching animals to cooperate with procedures to reduce stress.

Enriched housing

Providing stimulating environments with toys, bedding, and social companions.

Humane endpoints

Setting criteria to end an experiment early if animals show signs of severe distress.

Skilled staff

Ensuring researchers and animal caretakers are trained in humane techniques.

Learning

A relatively permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of experience.

Associative learning

When two or more things are paired together and/or space.

Classical conditioning

Learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus produces a conditioned response due to its association with an unconditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that reflexively produces an unconditioned response (UCR) without requiring previous training.

Unconditioned response (UCR)

A reflexive response produced by an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A stimulus that elicits a conditioned response (CR) because it has been associated with an unconditioned stimulus.

Conditioned response (CR)

A learned response to a conditioned stimulus.

Extinction

A procedure that leads to the gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of the conditioned response.

Spontaneous Recovery

The sudden reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of no training.

Generalisation

When a conditioned response occurs due to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Discrimination

When stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus do not result in a conditioned response after repeated training.

Discrimination Difficulty

The more similar the stimuli are to the CS, the greater the difficulty of discrimination.

Example of Discrimination

Discriminating a circle from a square would be easier than discriminating a circle from an ellipse.

Systematic Desensitisation

A technique perfected by Joseph Wolpe in the 1950s for curing phobias.

Counter-conditioning

Learning to associate the thing you fear with something relaxing or pleasant.

Graded Exposure

Introducing you to the thing you fear in stages, starting with brief and remote encounters and building up to longer, closer and more immediate encounters.

Participant Modelling

A role model demonstrates being relaxed and calm in the presence of the feared object.

Stimulation Hierarchy

A list of encounters with the feared thing, going from the least intense to the most intense.

Less Intense Encounters

Tend to be pictures or imitations rather than real, far away rather than close-up, and brief rather than long-lasting.

Patient Control

The stimulation hierarchy is created by the patient, as they know best what makes them anxious.

Ethical Guidelines

Emphasise the importance of respecting people's autonomy (control over what happens to them).

Social Learning Theory

Can be used to improve systematic desensitisation therapy.

Little Albert Study

A study conducted by Watson & Rayner in 1920 to demonstrate that powerful emotions are learned responses.

Aim of Little Albert Study

To find out if Classical Conditioning works on humans and if a fear response can be conditioned into a 9-month-old baby.

Neutral Stimuli (NS)

Stimuli that do not elicit a fear reaction, as shown in the Little Albert Study.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

The loud noise that caused Albert to cry, indicating it elicited an Unconditioned Response (UCR).

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

The crying response of Albert to the loud noise.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

The rat that became associated with the loud noise, leading to a fear response.

Conditioned Response (CR)

Albert's crying in response to the rat after conditioning.

Conditioning Method

Albert was shown the white rat paired with striking the iron bar to condition a fear response.

Findings of Little Albert Study

When the rat was presented alone, Albert whimpered, indicating the NS became a CS.

Generalisation of Fear Response

To see if the fear response would generalise to other animals and objects.

Duration of Conditioning

To investigate how long the conditioning lasts.

Relaxation Techniques

Wolpe taught his patients techniques like controlling breathing to counteract fear responses.

Conclusion of Watson & Rayner's Study

They concluded that they had successfully conditioned Albert to fear the white rat and that his fear response generalised to other white, furry things.

Generalisation of Fear Response

The fear response transferred to other situations, with a stronger response the more closely the stimuli resembled the rat.

Contributions to Psychology

The main application of this study has been for other learning psychologists, who have built on Watson & Rayner's research and investigated phobias in greater depth.

Flooding

Flooding involves exposing someone to the feared stimuli, letting them experience panic, but then letting the panic reaction wear off.

Systematic Desensitisation

A careful approach where the patient gets used to pictures of the feared thing, then photographs, then seeing it at a distance, then close up, before handling it.

Strengths of Watson & Rayner's Study

It is a reliable study because it has standardised procedures, was carefully documented, and was filmed.

Controls in Watson & Rayner's Study

Watson hid behind a curtain when striking the iron bar so that Albert would associate the noise with the rat, not with him or the bar or the hammer.

Pre-existing Fear Testing

Watson tested Albert's reactions before the conditioning to ensure he didn't have any pre-existing fear of white, furry things.

Limitations of Watson & Rayner's Study

The setting for the experiment lacks ecological validity because Albert was away from his playroom and familiar nurses.

Ethical Concerns in Watson & Rayner's Study

The study is clearly unethical as Watson & Rayner deliberately caused distress to an infant and didn't extinguish his fear reaction.

Single Subject Experiment

The experiment was done on a single child - Albert.

Aim of Pavlov's Study

To find out if a reflexive behaviour can be produced in new situations through learning, specifically if associating a reflex with a neutral stimulus causes learning.

Method of Pavlov's Study

Pavlov placed each dog in a sealed room to prevent extraneous variables from affecting the dog's salivation.

Control Condition in Pavlov's Study

Pavlov presented the dog with food (meat powder) through a hatch, causing the dog to salivate.

Neutral Stimulus in Pavlov's Study

Pavlov presented the dog with the Neutral Stimulus sound, which did not cause salivation, confirming it was indeed a Neutral Stimulus.

Conditioning Process in Pavlov's Study

Pavlov paired the sound with the presentation of food, usually doing this 20 times, depending on the dog's attentiveness.

Key Findings of Pavlov's Study

The conditioned dog started to salivate 9 seconds after hearing the sound and produced 11 drops of saliva by 45 seconds.

Conclusion of Pavlov's Study

Pavlov discovered Classical Conditioning, where the Neutral Stimulus turned into a Conditioned Stimulus, producing the Conditioned Response (salivation).

Further Research Contributions

The application is in further research into Classical Conditioning in humans, leading to the promotion of Behaviourism.

Behaviourism

A branch of psychology that holds that all human behaviour is conditioned and should be studied objectively.

Aversion Therapy

A programme for changing human behaviour that has had some success at curing people with addictions.

Limitations of Pavlov's Study

A problem is generalising from dogs to humans.

Ethical Concerns in Pavlov's Study

If research like this was carried out today, it would be unethical as research animals should be treated humanely.

Low ecological validity

The dogs were kept in very unusual conditions, and they were presented with odd stimuli, leading to abnormal reactions.

Pavlov's controlled setting

Pavlov's careful control makes his findings objective and scientifically credible, as there don't seem to be other stimuli affecting the dogs' salivation.

Reliable study

This is a good example of a reliable study because it has standardized procedures and was carefully documented, repeated many times over 25 years.

Inter-rater reliability

This is achieved by having different researchers observe the dog and measure the saliva.

Test-retest reliability

This is achieved by repeating the study with different dogs and different Neutral Stimuli.

Operant Conditioning

A theory developed by B.F. Skinner, indicating that behavior is based on A-B-C, where changing behavior requires altering antecedents or consequences.

Consequences in operant conditioning

It is much easier to change the consequences of behavior through reinforcement or punishment.

Reinforcement

Occurs when the desired behavior is rewarded, making it more likely to be repeated.

Positive Reinforcement

Rewards the desired behavior by adding something pleasant, such as food, affection, a compliment, or money.

Negative Reinforcement

Rewards the desired behavior by removing something unpleasant, like stopping pain or criticism.

Punishment

Occurs when undesirable behavior produces unpleasant consequences.

Positive Punishment

Punishes undesirable behavior by adding something unpleasant, such as a shock or criticism.

Negative Punishment

Punishes by removing something pleasant, like being grounded or deducting money.

Combined punishment

Often, punishment combines both types, for example, a detention adds work and takes away break time.