AP

structure reflects

function

ex of structure reflects function:

hammer: flat head (structure) for pounding nails (function)

function reflects

structure

ex of function reflecting structure:

coat: keep us warm (function) and has thick material held close to body (structure)

1. groups of cells that work together
2. groups of tissue that work together

tissue, organ

directional terms

gives us position in relation to other structures
-on the person you are looking at (left for you is right for them!)

name the directional terms (10):

superior, inferior, anterior, posterior, medial, lateral, proximal, and distal, superficial, deep

superior

above another structure
ex: the forehead is superior to the nose

inferior

lower on the body, farther from the head
-ex: your bellybutton is inferior to your breast bone

anterior (ventral)

toward the front of the body
-ex: the breastbone is anterior to the spine

posterior (dorsal)

toward the back of the body
-ex: the heart is posterior to the breastbone

what are the 2 terms ONLY referred to in animals?

dorsal, ventral

dorsal

toward the back

ventral

toward the belly

medial

toward the midline of the body
ex: the heart is medial to the arm

lateral

away from the midline of the body
ex: the arms are lateral to the chest

proximal

closer to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
-closer to the attachment
ex: the elbow is proximal to the wrist (the elbow is closer to the shoulder/point of attachment than wrist is)

distal

farther from the origin of a body part or the point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk
ex: the knee is distal to the thigh

superficial (external)

near the body surface
ex: the skin is superficial to the skeleton

deep (internal)

away from the body surface
ex: the lungs are deep to the rib cage

why is anatomical position SO important?

it's a point of reference used to describe the specific location of structures

what are planes?

imaginary flat surfaces that pass through the body

3 types of planes:

sagittal, transversal/horizontal, frontal/coronal

sagittal plane

a vertical plane that divides the body into right and left parts

what is the midsagittal plane?

divides the body into equal left and right halves

transversal plane (horizontal plane)

divides the body into upper and lower halves

frontal plane (coronal plane)

divides the body into front and back portions (anterior and posterior halves)

what are sections used for?

used on organs for internal structure

3 types of sections:

longitudinal, transverse, oblique

longitudinal

cut through the long axis of an organ (cut longways)

transverse/cross section

perpendicular (cut at a right angle) to the long axis of the body

oblique section

cuts made diagonally
-across the long axis, but not at a right angle

what is homeostasis?

the existence and maintenance of a relatively constant environment within the body
ex: body sweats when its hot to cool down

what can disruption in homeostasis lead to?

disease and possible death

what are the 2 types of feedback mechanisms?

positive and negative

is negative feedback mechanism good or bad?

good !

what is the negative feedback mechanism?

any deviation from the normal set point is resisted or smaller-most homeostatic control mechanisms are controlled in a negative feedback mechanism

example of negative feedback mechanism:

normal blood pressure

blood pressure increases, causing heart rate to decrease

blood backs up and can't get through causing the heart rate to slow down so less blood backs up until normal

blood pressure decreases, causing heart rate to increase

not enough blood causes blood to get out and the heart works harder to get this blood out

is the positive feedback mechanism good or bad?

BAD

what is the positive feedback mechanism?

the deviation of a normal value is made greater and keeps increasing-rare to occur in humans

what are examples of positive feedback mechanisms?

severe blood loss:-blood loss decreased blood pressure and decreases heart rate due to lack of blood in the system
birth-uterus is stretched, ends in delivery

what are the 4 types of tissues?

epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

functions of epithelial tissue (4)

protection, absorption, secretion, passages of substances (Ex: oxygen and carbon dioxide exchanged through tissues in bloodstream and intestines)

2 types of epithelial tissue:

membranous and glandular

membranous epithelium

the covering/lining found in serous cavities, blood and lymph vessels, respiratory tract, and digestive/genitourinary tracts
-classification based on cells

what are the 7 types of cells membranous epithelium are classified into?

simple squamous, simple cuboidal, simple columnar, pseudostratified (multiple layers) columnar, stratified squamous, stratified cuboidal, transitional

simple squamous epithelium

single layer of flat cells

simple cubiodal epithelium

single layer of cube shaped cells

simple columnar epithelium

made up of a single layer of tall cells that fit closely together

pseudostratified columnar epithelium

tissue that consists of a single layer of irregularly shaped and sized cells that give the appearance of multiple layers; found in ducts of certain glands and the upper respiratory tract

stratified squamous epithelium

stratified cuboidal epithelium

transitional epithelium

cells that are going through mitosis

glandular epithelium

grouped in solid cords of specialized follicles
-forms secretory units of endocrine and exocrine glands
-2 types of glands: unicellular and multicellular glands

unicellular glands

single-celled glands
-ex: pores

multiceullar glands

clusters, solid cords, specialized follicles
ex: hair follicles

exocrine glands

secrete into ducts—directly from one path to another
-ex: hair follicle

endocrine glands

ductless glands-whole body feel it
-ex: ovaries secrete estrogen and goes into the bloodstream

5 types of connective tissue:

-fibrous (dense connective)
-loose connective (areolar, adipose)
-bone
-cartilage (hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage)
-blood (only liquid connective tissue)

fibrous (dense connective) tissue:

large amounts of fibers and less ground substance
-ex: ligaments and tendons

loose connective tissue:

large amounts of ground substance and fewer fibers

2 types of loose connective tissue

adipose, areolar

adipose tissue

fat storage
- reduces heat loss (insulation)
- forms support and protection,
- nuclei and organelles are pushed to one side because of fat
- 2 types of fat: white fat cells and brown fat cells

areolar tissue

binds skin to underlying organs

cartilage

specialized cells called chondrocytes that are within the matrix
-made of collagen and elastic fibers
-strong and resilient

3 types of cartilage

hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage

hyaline cartilage

gristle
-most abundant out of the 3 types of cartilage
-found in larynx/nose/trachea/joints/bronchi

elastic cartilage

strong
-maintains its shape
-found in external ear and epiglottis—piece of cartilage that goes over the trachea when you swallow

fibrocartilage

contains fibers, slightly moveable
-found in intervertebral disks—absorb shock so you don't have a bone to bone collision when you jump and symphysis pubis
-found in the hipbones (spread during childbirth, don't want them to come in and crash on one another once child is out)

bone tissue

strongest connective tissue with little ground substance
-hard matrix of calcium and phosphorus
-has specialized bone cells called osteocytes

blood tissue

fluid connective tissue, no fibers (only ground substance-plasma and cells—red, white, platelets)

what is connective tissue made up of?

matrix (very matrix dominant)

what is matrix?

extracellular part that provides support and acts as a buffer against stress
-has a ground substance (made up of water and proteins)
-has fibers (elastic-able to stretch and come back--collagen-more support and less movement)

muscle tissue

a body tissue that contracts or shortens, making body parts move
-can be either skeletal (bones), cardiac (heart), or smooth (internal organs)

nervous tissue

made up of neurons
-carries electrical impulses through an organism

what is inflammatory response in response to?

the response to damage to tissues

immediate inflammatory response: (possible short answer?)

brief constriction of blood vessels occurs

about 5-10 seconds later:

blood vessels then dilate, which increases blood flow (increasing the amount of white blood cells needed to fix the tissue)

\_________ occurs

phagocytosis: white blood cells engulf and destroy bacteria in the area (tries to clear away anything that shouldn't be there and keeps throwing in more blood)

then, \_________ occurs

edema (swelling) and pain: swelling and warmth feels tight because you now have extra blood that puts pressure on everything

what are the signs of inflammatory response? (5)-possible SA?

redness, temperature, swelling, pain, turning different colors

process of tissue repair:-SA?

1. cells divide to fill wound (mitosis)
2. collagen fibers fill in gap because they are strong
3. small mass-normal tissue is replaced (ex: paper cuts)
4. large mass-scar forms

what are the functions of the integumentary system? (8)-SA

-maintain homeostasis (allows us to maintain body temperature--negative feedback mechanism)
-protection (bacteria, viruses)
-temperature regulation (ex: sweating)
-synthesis of Vitamin D (ex: absorbing sunlight)
-excretion
-absorption of lipid soluble proteins
-sense receptor (allows us to feel things)
-production of melanin and keratin

what are the 3 skin layers?

epidermis, dermis, hypodermis/subcutaneous (NOT A LAYER)

epidermis

top layer of skin
-thin, outer layer composed of stratified squamous epithelium
-composed of 5 layers

5 layers of epidermis: (possible diagram)

1. Stratum corneum: dead cells on top of dermis
2. Stratum lucidem: only on fingertips and toes for extra protection—more sensitive nerves
3. Stratum granulosum: more dead cells
4. Stratum spinosum: active layer of cells, thickest layer of the epidermis
5. Stratum basale: cells that touch the dermis

where are the youngest cells in the epidermis?

-youngest cells at bottom (stratum basale) and oldest cells on top (stratum corneum)

what is the dermis?

bottom layer of skin, much thicker than epidermis and deep to epidermis
-2 layers

2 layers of dermis:

papillary and reticular

papillary layer

superficial layer that forms bumps called dermal papillae—causes fingerprints (helps us grip objects and walk on slippery surfaces)

recticular layer

deep layer
-network of fibers
-contains collagen fibers, elastic fibers, and striated/smooth muscle

what is the hypodermis?

NOT a layer of skin
-underneath the skin for insulation
-AKA subcutaneous layer of skin
-50% of fat storage
-it moves with the skin and keeps the body protected along with the skin

4 parts of hair (appendages of skin--hair, nails, glands)

follicle, germinal matrix, hair papillae, arrector pili muscles

3 parts of hair papillae
-GLAND ON HAIR:

shaft, hair root, hair bulb
-sebacceous gland (oil-keeps hair soft and pliant)

shaft

visible part of the hair

hair root

the part of the hair located below the surface of the epidermis hidden in follicle

hair bulb

Lowest part of a hair strand
- the thickened, club-shaped structure that forms the lower part of the hair root
-base of hair root

arrector pili muscles

attached to each hair follicle
-causes "goose bumps" when contracted
-contract in response to cold temperatures to heat up the body