Unit 7: Cognition

measure of retention

recall, recognition, relearning

self-reference effect

tendency to better remember information relevant to ourselves

info-processing models

analogies that compare human memory to a computer's operations (encoding, storage, retrieval)

rehearsal

the conscious repetition of information, either to maintain it in consciousness or to encode it for storage

peg word system

A mnemonic in which the items in a list to be remembered are associated with the sequential items in a memorized jingle and then the list is retrieved by going through the jingle and retrieving the associated items.

hierarchies

Complex information broken down into broad concepts and further subdivided into categories and subcategories

massed practice

a practice schedule in which studying continues for long periods, without interruption

distributed practice

spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods

connectionism

memories are products of interconnected neural networks (an info-processing model) (learn something new --\> neural connections change

cerebellum

enables classical conditioning (implicit memory)

basal ganglia

directs intentional movements and enables implicitly remembered motions (Ex: riding a bike)

infantile amnesia

the inability to remember events from early childhood (hippocampus isn't fully developed)

amygdala

enables emotion-related memory formation

mild neurocognitive disorder

modest impairment in cognitive abilities that can be overcome with accommodations such as extensive lists or elaborate schedules

retrieval cues

Stimuli that are used to bring a memory to consciousness or into behavior

context-dependent memory

The theory that information learned in a particular situation or place is better remembered when in that same situation or place.

state-dependent memory

the phenomenon through which memory retrieval is most efficient when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as they were when the memory was formed (drunk, caffeinated, etc.) (incl. mood-dependent memory)

positive transfer

mastery of one task aids learning or performing another

fixation

the inability to see a problem from a new perspective, by employing a different mental set

receptive language

ability to comprehend speech

productive language

babies' ability to produce words

critical period

a specific time in development when certain skills or abilities are most easily learned

for language, young children

bilingual advantage

bilingual children who learn to inhibit one language while using the other are better able to inhibit their attention to irrelevant information

outcome simulation

a process where we visualize the endpoint of a specific event

process simulation

a process where we visualize the process of a specific event

(helps more than outcome simulation)

universal grammar

Noam Chomsky's theory that all the world's languages share a similar underlying structure

overgeneralization

applying grammar rules in areas they don't apply ("I writed a story"; goed; comed)

Noam Chomsky

memory

the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

encoding

the processing of information into the memory system—for example, by extracting meaning.

storage

the process of retaining encoded information over time

retrieval

the process of getting information out of memory storage

parallel processing

the processing of many aspects of a problem simultaneously; the brain's natural mode of information processing for many functions, including vision. (Contrasts with the step-by-step processing of most computers and of conscious problem solving

sensory memory

the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system

short-term memory

activated memory that holds a few items briefly, such as the seven digits of a phone number while dialing, before the info is stored or forgotten

long-term memory

the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system. Includes knowledge, skills, and experiences

working memory

a newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory

explicit memory

memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and "declare" (declarative memory)

effortful processing

encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

automatic processing

unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings.

implicit memory

retention independent of conscious recollection (nondeclarative memory)

iconic memory

a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli; a photographic or picture-image memory lasting no more than a few tenths of a second.

echoic memory

a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli; if attention is elsewhere, sounds and words can still be recalled within 3 or 4 seconds

chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically

mnemonics

memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

spacing effect

the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study or practice

testing effect

enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading, information. Also known as retrieval practice effect or test-enhanced learning

(repeated self-testing)

shallow processing

encoding on a basic level based on the structure or appearance of words

deep processing

encoding semantically, based on the meaning of the words, tends to yield the best retention

hippocampus

a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process explicit memories for storage

flashbulb memory

a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event

long-term potentiation (LTP)

an increase in a cell's firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Believed to be a neural basis for learning and memory

recall

a measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier, as on a fill-in-the-blank test

recognition

a measure of memory in which the person need only identify items previously learned, as on a multiple choice test

relearning

a measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again

priming

the activation, often unconsciously, of certain associations, thus predisposing one's perception, memory, or response

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

serial position effect

our tendency to recall best the last (a recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list

anterograde amnesia

an inability to form new memories

retrograde amnesia

an inability to retrieve information from one's past

proactive interference

the disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information

retroactive interference

the disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information

repression

in psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes from consciousness anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories

misinformation effect

incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event

source amnesia

attributing to the wrong source an event we have experienced, heard about, read about, or imagined. (Source misattribution). This, along with the misinformation effect, is at the heart of many false memories.

déjà vu

that eerie sense that "I've experienced this before." Cues from the current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier experience

cognition

all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating

concept

a mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people

prototype

a mental image or best example of a category. Matching new items to a prototype provides a quick and easy method for sorting items into categories

creativity

the ability to produce novel and valuable ideas

convergent thinking

narrows the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution

divergent thinking

expands the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking that diverges in different directions)

algorithm

a methodical, logical rule or procedures that guarantees solving a particular problem. Contrasts with the usually speedier-but also more error-prone-use of heuristics

heuristic

a simple thinking strategy that often allows us to make judgements and solve problems efficiently. (speedier but more error-prone than algorithms)

insight

a sudden realization of a problem's solution; contrasts with strategy-based solutions

confirmation bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

mental set

a tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful in the past

intuition

an effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought, as contrasted with explicit, conscious reasoning

representativeness heuristic

judging the likelihood of things in terms of how well they seem to represent, or match, particular prototypes; may lead us to ignore other relevant information

availability heuristic

estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory; if instances come readily to mind (perhaps because of their vividness), we presume such events are common

overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct-to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgements

belief perseverance

clinging to one's initial conceptions after the basis on which they were formed has been discredited

framing

the way an issue is posed; how an issue is framed can significantly affect decisions and judgements

language

our spoken, written, or singed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning

phoneme

in a language, the smallest distinctive sound unit

morpheme

in a language, the smallest unit that carries meaning; may be a word or part of a word (ex: prefix)

grammar

in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others. In a given language, semantics is the set of rules for deriving meaning from sounds and syntax is the set of rules for combining words into grammatically sensible sentences.

babbling stage

beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which the infant spontaneously utters various sounds at first unrelated to the household language

one-word stage

the stage in speech development, from about age 1-2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words

two-word stage

beginning about age 2, the stage in speech development during which a child speaks mostly in two word statements

telegraphic speech

early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram-"go car"- using mostly nouns and verbs (two-word stage)

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by left-hemisphere damage to either Broca's Area (impairing speaking) or to Wernicke's Area (impairing understanding)

Broca's Area

Controls language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke's Area

controls language reception-a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe

linguistic determinism

Whorf's hypothesis that language determines the way we think

metacognition

"Thinking about thinking" or the ability to evaluate a cognitive task to determine how best to accomplish it, and then to monitor and adjust one's performance on that task

method of loci

A mnemonic device that involves taking an imaginary walk along a familiar path where images of items to be remembered are associated with certain locations.