Cornell Vet Med Precollege

Dorsal

Towards the spine

Ventral

Towards the stomach

What is the red side?

Ventral

What is the blue side?

Dorsal

Cranial

Towards the head

Caudal

Towards the tail

Rostral

Towards the muzzle

Proximal

Closer to the body mass

Distal

Further from the body mass

Superficial

Surface of the body mass

Deep

Center of the body mass

What is the green color?

Caudal

What is the blue color?

Rostral

What is the yellow color?

Cranial

Anatomy

The form, disposition, and structure of tissues and organs that comprise the body

Physiology

The function of anatomy. How systems in the body structure and function in the whole being.

Ex. electrical conduction, muscle constraction

Gross anatomy

Anatomy of things you can touch and/or see with an unaided eye

ex. organs

Microscopic anatomy

(Histology) The anatomy of things that cannot be seen with an unaided eye

ex. tissues and cells

cells, structure of cells, and how they form together

Developmental anatomy

How an organism develops from the fetal state

Clinical anatomy

Anatomy pertaining to surgical procedures, exams, and the drawing of blood

Radiographic anatomy

Anatomy visualized using radiograph and imaging techniques

Applied anatomy

Application of anatomical knowledge to diagnose and treat

Head and neck

Important things to think about:

• Pathway of food and air

• What can be palpated?

• What diagnostic tools can be used for the patient?

Ex. Muscles, nerves, blood vessels, lymph nodes, salivary glands

Thorax

Important things to think about:

• What can be heard with a stethoscope?

• What diagnostic tools can be used for the patient?

Ex. Heart, lungs, blood vessels, nerves

Abdomen

Important things to think about:

• Spatial relationship

• What can be palpated

• What diagnostic tools can be used for the patient?

• Pathway of food?

  Ex. organs

Limbs

Important things to think about:

• What can be palpated?

• Important things to think about:

  Ex. bones, joints muscles, nerves, blood vessels

Anterior

To the front (especially for the head)

Posterior

To the back (especially for the head)

Inferior

To the bottom (especially for the head)

Superior

To the top (especially for the head)

Sagittal plane

Division of an animal into left and right parts

Medial

Towards the middle (sagittal plane)

Lateral

Away from middle (sagittal plane)

This is a…?

Sagittal plane

This is a…?

Transverse plane

Division of an animal into cranial/rostral and caudal parts

Transverse plane

The four tissue types

• Epithelial

• Connective

• Muscle

• Nervous

What type of tissue is blood?

Specialized connective tissue

Definition of connective tissue

Cells suspended in a tissue specific extracellular matrix

Functions of blood

• Transportation - move oxygen/carbon dioxide, nutrients, hormones, and waste products

• Protection - fight infection, clot blood, coagulation

• Regulation - PH balance, temp, electrolyte balance

What are the components of blood?

Plasma, red blood cells, and the buffy coat

Plasma in blood

~55% of blood

Components:

• water (90%)

• dissolved substances (10%)

  • proteins (albumin, globulin)

  • waste products (urea, creatinine, bilirubin)

  • Salts, minerals

Red blood cells in blood

~45% of blood

Buffy coat in blood

~1% of blood

white blood cells, platelets

Serum

Liquid remaining after blood clots naturally

• no clotting factor

• plasma - clotting factor = serum

Plasma

Liquid portion of blood treated with an anticoagulant

Contains clotting factors (fibrinogen)

Blood clots contain..

fibrinogen

Red blood cells are also called

Erythrocytes

Erythrocytes function to…

• transport oxygen and carbon dioxide

• Principally made of hemoglobin

  • Each molecule carries oxygen

• Live for 2-4 months

• Mature in bone marrow from reticulocytes (larger and less contained hemoglobin)

Erythrocytes appearance

Anucleate - spit out the nucleus as they develop

Biconcave disc

Central pallor - pale area in center

An increase erythrocyte is called

Erythrocytosis

• overproduction by the bone marrow

• Compensation for chronic hypoxia (low oxygen) or high altitude

A decrease of erythrocyte is called

Anemia

• Regenerative anemia

• Hemorrhage (loss of RBC)

• Hemolysis (destruction of RBCs)

• Non-regenerative anemia (decreased production)

White blood cells are also called..?

Leukocytes

Leukocytes functions

The defense of the body against infection

Less numerous than erythrocytes

What are the two types of leukocytes?

Granulocytes: contains granules

• neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils

Agranulocytes: lacks granules

• lymphocytes, monocytes

Leukocyte abnormalities

Increase:

• Leukocytosis

Decrease:

• Leukopenia

What are granules?

Little vesicles with different proteins, enzymes etc that help with immune function of the cells. Each cell has granules with different content depending on function

Neutrophil function

Granulocyte

Most abundant

• Fights against disease

• Engulf invading bacteria and cellular debris through phagocytosis

Lifespan: 5-10 hours

Abnormalities:

• Neutrophilia - increase

• Neutropenia - decrease

• Left shift - increased banding

Neutrophil appearance

• Lobulated nucleus with granulated cytoplasm

• Mature -segmented nucleus

• Immature - “band” nucleus

Basophil function

Granulocyte

Last line of parasite defense

Regulates allergic reactions (releases histamine, pro-inflammatory)

Lifespan: ~6 hours

Abnormalities

Increase: Basophilia

Decrease: Basopenia

Basophil appearance

Lobulated nucleus with basophilic (purple) granules

Eosinophil function

Granulocyte

Parasite defense

Regulates allergic reactions

Enzymes inactivate histamine (balances basophils)

Lifespan: minutes to hours

Abnormalities:

• Defense: eosinophilia

• Increase - eosinopenia

Eosinophil appearance

Lobulated nucleus with eosinophilic (pink) granules

Monocyte function

Agranulocyte

Largest of leukocytes

Phagocytic cells kill microorganisms, ingest foreign materials, and remove dead cells

Lifespan: 12 - 24 hours

Migrate into tissues (similar to neutrophils) and mature to macrophages or dendritic cells

Abnormalities:

• increase: monocytosis

• decrease: monocytopenia

Monocyte appearance

Varies

Horseshoe shape

Bubble vacuoles

Nucleus +/-1 lobules

Cytoplasm +/-1 vacuoles

Lymphocyte

Agranulocyte

Second most common type of leukocyte

Main cell type of the immune system(B and T cells)

Lifespan: hours to years

B cells:

• matures in plasma cells, antibody production

T cells:

• cytotoxic T cells kill infected cells

• helper T cells recognize infected cells and recruit other cells

Abnormalities:

Increase: Lymphocytosis

decrease: Lymphopenia

Plasma is a type of…

Lymphocyte

Lymphocyte appearance

Round nucleus, little cytoplasm

What are platelets also known as

Thrombocytes

Platelets function

Formation of blood clots

Prevent bleeding after vessel injury

Form platelet plug at injury

Lifespan: 1 - 2 weeks

Produced in bone marrow

Abnormalities:

increase: Thrombocytosis

Decrease: Thrombocytopenia

• Can lead to increased bleeding and bruising

For this course platelets…

are their own category of cell, NOT a white blood cell

Platelet appearance

Very small, disc shaped

Anucleated cell fragments

These are…

Red blood cells (erythrocyte)

These are…

Neutrophils

• Lobulated nucleus

• Granulated

These are…

Eosinophils

• Pink

• Bubbly

• Granulated

• Lobulated nucleus

These are…

Basophils

• Lobulated nucleus

• Granulated

• Purple granules

These are…

Monocytes

• Horseshoe shape

• No granules

These are…

Lymphocytes

• Round nucleus, little cytoplasm

• No granules

What are the arrows pointing to?

Platelets

Blood circulation

• Transported through body in vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries)

• Proper circulation provides oxygen and nutrients to different tissues and removes waste

• Regulated by hormones and nervous system signals

• Disruptions can lead to health problems

  ex. stroke, heart disease, hypertension

What is the green vein?

Jugular vein

What is the red vein?

Cephalic vein

What is the purple vein?

Lateral saphenous vein

What is the blue vein?

Medial saphenous vein

What blood collection site is typically used for dogs / larger animals?

Cephalic vein

What blood collection site is typically used for cats / smaller animals?

The saphenous veins

Blood tubes with purple tops

• Contain EDTA as an anticoagulant

• Used for complete blood count

Blood tubes with green tops

Contains heparin as an anticoagulant

Used for chem panels

Blood tubes with blue tops

Contains citrate as an anticoagulant

Used for coagulation panels

Blood tubes with red tops

No additives

Used for chem panels

What does a complete blood count test?

What does a chem panel test?

Analyzes non-cellular components of blood (proteins, electrolytes, minerals)

What does a blood smear test?

The morphology of blood cells

Organ system hierarchy

Subcellular structures → cells → tissues → organs → organ systems

Epithelial tissues shape

Continuous sheets that cover body surfaces (interior and exterior) and secretary portions of glands

Main roles of epithelial tissues

protection, absorption, and secretion

How are epithelium described?

shapes

• squamous if flat

• cuboidal if cube-shaped

• columnar if they look like columns

layers

• simple if there is one cell layer

• stratified if there is more than one cell layer

• pseudostratified if it initially appears stratified but isn’t

What are the specialized modifications on the surface of epithelial tissues

microvilli or cilia that I can allow for more surface area for absorption (places like the gut) or allow them to move fluid or particles along the surface(respiratory tract)

What is contained in an extracellular matrix?

• water gel, rich in negatively charged molecules (to attract water)

• fibrous compounds, like collagen and elastic fibers, for flexibility and tensile strength to create a supportive framework