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Genetic Engineering
A process that involves altering the genetic material of an organism to achieve desired traits. This technique can involve adding, deleting, or modifying genes within an organism's genome. Genetic engineering is used in various applications, such as developing genetically modified organisms (GMOs) for agriculture, producing insulin for diabetes treatment, and creating gene therapies for genetic disorders.
Patterns of Inheritance
Patterns of inheritance refer to the ways in which traits and genes are passed from parents to offspring. These patterns include Mendelian inheritance, where traits are determined by discrete units (genes) through dominant and recessive alleles, incomplete dominance, where the phenotype is a blend of both alleles, co-dominance, where both alleles are fully expressed, and polygenic inheritance, where multiple genes contribute to a single trait, resulting in a continuous range of phenotypes. Understanding these patterns is crucial for predicting genetic outcomes and studying evolution.
Dipole
A molecular arrangement with an uneven distribution of charges, as in the structure of water.
Cohesion
The attraction between water molecules, which results in surface tension.
Hydrogen Bond
A weak electrical attraction between water molecules that is essential for many biological molecules.
Monosaccharide
The simplest carbohydrate, consisting of a single sugar molecule such as glucose or fructose.
Disaccharide
A carbohydrate formed from two monosaccharides, examples include sucrose and lactose.
Polysaccharide
A carbohydrate that consists of more than two sugar units, examples include starch and cellulose.
Glycosidic Bond
A type of bond that links monosaccharides together to form disaccharides or polysaccharides.
Reducing Sugar
A sugar that can donate electrons, typically tested with Benedict's solution.
Non-reducing Sugar
A sugar that does not react with Benedict's solution unless first hydrolyzed.
Polysaccharide
Large carbohydrate molecules formed from many monosaccharides.
Triglyceride
A lipid molecule made up of three fatty acids and a glycerol, serving as an energy store.
Phospholipid
A type of lipid that makes up the cell membrane, consisting of a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails.
Amino Acid
The building blocks of proteins, with a central carbon atom attached to an amino group, carboxyl group, hydrogen atom, and R group.
Protein Structure
The arrangement of amino acids in a polypeptide chain that determines its function.
Primary Structure
The unique sequence of amino acids in a protein.
Enzyme
A biological catalyst that speeds up chemical reactions in living organisms.
Substrate
The reactant that an enzyme acts upon.
Active Site
The region of an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction.
Natural Selection
The process by which organisms better suited to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.
Speciation
The evolutionary process by which populations evolve to become distinct species.
Genetic Drift
Random changes in allele frequencies in a population, often leading to reduced genetic variation.
Gene
A segment of DNA that encodes a specific protein or function.
Allele
Different forms of a gene that can exist at a specific locus on a chromosome.
Genotype
The genetic constitution of an individual, representing the inherited alleles.
Phenotype
The observable physical traits of an organism, influenced by genotype and environment.
Homozygous
An organism with two identical alleles for a specific gene.
Heterozygous
An organism with two different alleles for a specific gene.
Dominant Allele
An allele that expressed its trait even when only one copy is present.
Recessive Allele
An allele that is only expressed when two copies are present.
Mutation
A change in the DNA sequence that can lead to variations in traits.
Chromosome
A structure that contains DNA, organized into genes, and is found in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.
Genetic Engineering
A process that involves altering the genetic material of an organism to achieve desired traits.
CRISPR
A revolutionary genetic editing tool that allows for precise modifications to DNA.
Transgenic Organism
An organism that contains a gene or genes which have been artificially inserted instead of the organism acquiring them through reproduction.
Gene Therapy
A technique that modifies a person's genes to treat or prevent disease.
Monohybrid Cross
A genetic cross between individuals that examines the inheritance of a single trait.
Dihybrid Cross
A genetic cross that examines the inheritance of two different traits.
Punnett Square
A diagram used to predict the outcome of a genetic cross by showing the possible combinations of gametes.
Incomplete Dominance
A genetic scenario where neither allele is completely dominant, resulting in a blend of traits in the offspring.
Polygenic Inheritance
A pattern of inheritance where multiple genes contribute to a single trait, often resulting in a range of phenotypes.
Epigenetics
The study of how environmental factors can change gene expression without altering the DNA sequence.
Genetic Modification
The process of altering the genetic makeup of an organism using biotechnology.
Mendelian Genetics
The study of how traits are inherited according to Gregor Mendel's laws.
CRISPR-Cas9
A powerful tool for editing genomes by removing or altering DNA at particular locations.
Gene Expression
The process by which information from a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product, usually protein.
Recombinant DNA Technology
A method that involves joining together DNA from two different species.
Gene Cloning
The process of making multiple copies of a specific gene.
Agrobacterium tumefaciens
A bacterium used to introduce new DNA into plants.
DNA Ligase
An enzyme that joins together DNA fragments.
Biotechnology
The use of living systems and organisms to develop or make products.
Transgenic Plants
Plants that have been genetically modified to contain a gene from another organism.
Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP)
A variation at a single position in a DNA sequence among individuals.
Genetic Diversity
The total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species.
Chromosomal Abnormalities
Errors in cell division that can lead to diseases or developmental issues.
Dominant Trait
A trait that is expressed in the phenotype even if only one copy of the allele is present.
Recessive Trait
A trait that is only expressed in the phenotype if two copies of the allele are present.
Gametes
Reproductive cells (sperm and eggs) that contain half the genetic material of an organism.
Zygote
A fertilized egg that is formed by the union of two gametes.
Homozygous Dominant
An organism with two identical dominant alleles for a trait.
Heterozygous
An organism with two different alleles for a trait.
Punnett Square
A chart used to predict genetic combinations in offspring.
Genetic Recombination
The process by which genetic material is physically mixed during meiosis, leading to new combinations.
Phenotype
The observable physical characteristics of an organism as a result of its genotype.
Genotype
The genetic constitution of an organism, including all alleles.
Linkage Disequilibrium
Non-random association of alleles at different loci.
Epistasis
A form of gene interaction where the effect of one gene is modified by another gene.
Quantitative Traits
Traits that are influenced by multiple genes and show continuous variation.
CDNA
Complementary DNA synthesized from an mRNA template.
Phenotypic Plasticity
The ability of an organism to change its phenotype in response to environmental conditions.
Selective Breeding
The process of breeding animals and plants for particular genetic traits.
Gene Flow
The transfer of genetic variation from one population to another.
Polyploidy
A condition where an organism has extra sets of chromosomes.
Genetic Drift
Random changes in allele frequency within a population.
Pleiotropy
The phenomenon where one gene influences multiple phenotypic traits.
Additive Inheritance
A pattern where alleles contribute additively to the phenotype.
Translocation
A genetic abnormality caused by the rearrangement of parts between non-homologous chromosomes.
Back-Visualization
A technique used to visualize genetic changes or markers within organisms.
Gene Therapy
The technique of changing the genes inside an individual's cells to treat or stop disease.
Nucleotide Repeat Expansion
A genetic mutation that involves the repetition of a nucleotide sequence.
Genomic Library
A collection of DNA sequences that represent an organism's genome.
CRISPR Screening
A process to identify gene functions or genetic interactions on a large scale.
Mitochondrial Inheritance
A type of inheritance where genes are passed via mitochondria, often from mother to offspring.
Horizontal Gene Transfer
The movement of genetic material between organisms other than by descent.
Gene Drive
A genetic engineering technology that promotes the inheritance of a particular gene to increase its prevalence.
Cis-acting Regulatory Elements
DNA sequences that regulate the transcription of nearby genes.
Trans-acting Factors
Proteins, like transcription factors, that regulate gene expression.
Somatic Cell Nuclear Transfer (SCNT)
A method used for cloning that involves transferring the nucleus of a somatic cell into an egg cell.
Agrobacterium-Mediated Transformation
A method used to transfer genes into plant cells using Agrobacterium.
Phase Variation
A mechanism that bacteria use to alter their surface structures.
RNA Interference
A biological process in which RNA molecules inhibit gene expression or translation.
Tissue Culture
The technique of growing cells or tissues in a controlled environment.
Adaptive Traits
Traits that enhance the survival or reproduction of organisms in a particular environment.
Genetic Counseling
A process that evaluates genetic risks and provides guidance to families.
Allelic Variation
Differences in the DNA sequence of a gene among individuals.
