Studied by 1 person
What is gender?
Characteristics related to femininity and masculinity based on social and cultural norms
What is gender identity?
A sense of one’s own gender
What are gender roles?
Societal expectations that prescribe how girls/women or boys/men should think, act, and feel
How does biology influence gender in early adolescence?
Young adolescents incorporate sexuality into their gender attitudes and behavior
Based on evolution, how did male and female genders develop?
Males & females faced different pressures when the human species was evolving because of their different roles in reproduction
Based on evolution, what constitutes the male gender?
Have as much sex as possible with many different women to pass on genes; many of the babies won’t be born/survive to adulthood; competition, risk-taking, violence
Based on evolution, what constitutes the female gender role?
If risking life getting pregnant, need a healthy & loyal male to help provide for her & protect; parenting; choose loyal mates who would provide resources
What is the social role theory?
Gender differences mainly result from the contrasting roles of females & males; ex. the social hierarchy and the division of labor, like how girl teenagers and kids have more practice taking care of babies
How do parents influence adolescents’ concept of gender?
By having different expectations for boys vs girls; ex. giving boys more freedom and monitoring/restricting girls more, having different achievement expectations, interacting differently with sons & daughters, mothers socializing daughters to be more obedient and responsible, fathers spending more time with sons than daughters
How do peers influence adolescents’ concept of gender?
Peer approval and disapproval is a powerful influence gender attitudes & behavior
How does the typical environment of an elementary school playground influence adolescents’ & children’s concept of gender?
Masculine or feminine behavior is taught and reinforced
How do typical classroom dynamics influence adolescents’ and children’s concept of gender?
Teachers more likely to view boys as problematic; Harder for boys to look up to female teachers; More attention to boys & less attention to girls; girls are less assertive
How does mass media influence adolescents’ concept of gender?
Highly stereotyped portrayal of the sexes; women as sexual objects, promotion of rape myth; early adolescents are highly sensitive to messages about gender roles; body image concerns
What is the social cognitive theory of gender?
Children’s & adolescents’ gender development is influenced by: 1.) their observation & imitation of others’ gender behavior AND 2.) the rewards & punishments they experience for gender-appropriate & gender-inappropriate behavior
What is the gender schema theory?
Gender-typing emerges as children & adolescents gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate & gender-inappropriate in their culture; gender schemas shape how they perceive the world & what they remember; motivated to conform to one’s schemas
What is gender schema?
Organizes the world in terms of male and female
What is gender stereotyping?
Generalized beliefs about a group; Human tendency to offer explanation —> frequently incorrectly gender-based
Male and female brains are _____ (more/less) physically similar than different.
more
How do females differ from males physically?
Longer life expectancy; stronger immune systems, more resistant to infection
How do males differ from females physically?
Greater physical strength, taller; More likely to develop physical or mental disorders
Is there a gender difference in overall intellectual ability?
No
What are the cognitive differences between males and females?
Males have better visiospatial skills; females perform better in reading & writing
____ (boys/girls) are more likely to drop out of high school.
Boys
____ (boys/girls) are more engaged & have more positive attitudes about school.
Girls
____ (males/females) are more likely to enroll in college & earn a degree.
Females
How does aggression differ between genders?
Boys are more physically aggressive; Girls are more verbally aggressive; Girls engage in more relational aggression
What are some examples of relational aggression?
social ostracism, spreading malicious rumors, relationship manipulation
What is rapport talk versus report talk?
Rapport talk —> strengthening relationships, more common in women; Report talk —> giving information/facts, more common in men
Boys groups are typically…
larger, hierarchically structured, games with winners and losers, competition, not much intimate discussion, less exclusivity
Girls groups are typically…
smaller, more intimate, more discussion, exclusive
Adolescent ___ (girls/boys) engage in more self-disclosure & provide emotional support in friendships.
girls
Which gender tends to engage in more prosocial behavior?
Girls; show more empathy as well
True or False: Gender behavior often varies across contexts.
True
What does androgynous mean?
Having both masculine and feminine traits
What does traditional masculinity entail?
Boys being socialized to not show emotion & act tough; encouraged to engage in sex, substance abuse, delinquency
What is gender-role transcendence?
When a person’s competence is at issue, it should be conceptualized on an individual basis (not in regard to gender)
What is the gender intensification hypothesis?
Psychological and behavioral differences between males & females become more pronounced during early adolescence because of intensified socialization pressures to conform to masculine or feminine gender roles
How has sexual permissiveness changed in the U.S. since the 1960s?
Sexual permissiveness has become greater
How does one develop a sexual identity?
Must learn to regulate sexual behavior and avoid undesirable consequences; strongly influenced by social norms related to sex - the extent to which adolescents perceive their peers are having sex, using protection, etc.
True or false: Sexual intercourse in adolescence has been increasing recently.
False; it has been declining
How does the sexual behavior of adolescents in developing countries differ from that of developed countries?
Developing countries —> most sexually experienced females are married; Developed countries —> vast majority are unmarried
What are sexual scripts?
Role prescriptions for how individuals should behave in sexual contexts
How do sexual scripts affect adolescent girls?
Report being in love as the main reason they are sexually active; are the one to set sexual limits in a relationship
How do sexual scripts affect adolescent boys?
Ex
What is early sexual activity linked with?
Drug use, delinquency, school-related problems, forced sex, unsafe sex, an increased number of sexual partners,
What are family factors that are related to early sex?
SES & poverty
What are protective family factors for early sex?
Supportive parenting, open communication
What are peer & school factors related to early sex?
Deviant peers, sexually permissive peers
What are protective peer & school factors for early sex?
School connectedness (ex. feeling competent as a student, wanting an education), academic achievement, positive relationships
What are personality factors related to early sex?
Weak self-regulation & impulsiveness
What are protective personality factors for early sex?
Religiousity, spirituality, and positive future outlook
What are predictors of a higher likelihood of non-relationship sex?
Impulsivity, sensation seeking, & alcohol use
How do hormone levels in the prenatal period possibly influence sexual orientation?
Female fetuses exposed to extra testosterone & male fetuses exposed to low levels of testosterone —> may lead to gender atypical traits and same sex desires
What is a protective factor for sexuality minority youth when looking at discrimination, bias, & violence?
Social scripts
True or false: Many sexually active adolescents use contraceptives consistently.
False; many sexually active adolescents do not use contraceptives or use them inconsistently
True or false: The U.S. has one of the highest rates of adolescent pregnancy and childbearing in the industrialized world.
True
Why are adolescent pregnancy and childbearing rates so low in other developed countries?
Having a child is regarded as an activity for adults; the message that you are not ready to have a child is clear; early, comprehensive sex ed & clear messages about contraception; access to family planning services
True or false: Adolescent pregnancy rates have been declining in recent years.
True
Why are adolescent pregnancy rates declining?
School/community health classes, increased contraceptive use, fear of STIs
Which ethnic groups have the highest rates of adolescent pregnancy?
Latinas & african americans
What increases the likelihood of teenage childbearing?
Having a teenage mother, low parental monitoring, & poverty
In terms of health, how are adolescents are parents?
Less likely to receive prenatal care; More likely pregnancy complications because adolescent body isn’t developed enough to maintain healthy pregnancy
In terms of parenting, how are adolescents as parents?
Less competent at childrearing; have to remain self-controlled & adolescents lack self-control because brain is still developing
What are 4 recommendations to reduce adolescent pregnancy?
1.) Comprehensive sex education
2.) Access to contraceptive methods
3.) Motivation, hope for the future, & life options (success in education, career, etc.)
4.) Broad community involvement & support
What does recovery from rape depend on?
Coping abilities, psychological adjustment prior to the assault, social support, & the availability of professional counseling
What is wrong with many adolescent sex prevention programs?
These programs often assume that adolescents have the cognitive ability to anticipate consequences & weigh probable outcomes in an organized & analytical manner
How do the outcomes of sex ed programs that emphasize contraceptive knowledge differ from abstinence-only programs?
Programs that emphasize contraceptive knowledge do not increase the incidence of sex & are more likely to reduce the risk of adolescent pregnancy & STIs compared to abstinence-only programs
What makes sex ed programs work?
Clear, specific information about sexual behaviors, contraceptive use, STIs, pregnancy, risky behaviors, etc.
Teach and model how to deal with social pressures, how to say no, how to insist on contraception
Discuss mature love, healthy and unhealthy relationships
Discuss how to treat others
What is moral development?
Changes in thoughts, feelings, & behaviors regarding standards of right & wrong and how you develop these changes
What is Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory?
Moral development is based primarily on moral reasoning that changes developmentally; stage theory; Answer questions about hypothetical moral dilemmas, and how you answer indicates your level of moral development
What is level 1 of Kohlberg’s theory?
Preconventional Reasoning: Moral reasoning is strongly influenced by external punishments & rewards
What is level 2 of Kohlberg’s theory?
Conventional Reasoning: Individuals abide by certain standards (internal) but they are the standards of others (external); social roles, laws of society
What is level 3 of Kohlberg’s theory?
Postconventional Reasoning: Morality is internalized; a personal moral code; objective, universal ethical principles
What are some critiques of Kohlberg’s theory?
1.) Too much emphasis on moral thought and not enough on moral behavior
2.) Moral thinking is more of an intuitive gut reaction, not always contemplative & conscious
3.) Emotions can actually play an important role in moral thinking
4.) Culturally biased in favor of individualistic thinking
5.) Parents can play an important role in moral development
What is moral competence?
Capabilities, skills, what they know, their awareness of moral rules, & cognitive ability
What is moral performance?
The enactment of moral competence behaviors in specific situations; determined by motivation, rewards, & incentives
What is the Social Cognitive Theory of Moral Development?
Having both moral competence & moral performance
What is altruism?
An unselfish interest in helping another person
How do strong feelings of empathy, sympathy, admiration, self-esteem, anger, outrage, shame, and guilt affect adolescents and their moral development?
Can influence adolescents to act in accord with standards of right & wrong
What are the 3 aspects of moral personality?
Moral identity, moral character, and moral exemplars
What is moral identity?
Moral ideas and commitments are central to one’s life
What is moral character?
Having strong convictions, persisting, and overcoming distractions and obstacles
What are moral exemplars?
Models who have a moral personality, identity, character, and set of virtues that reflect moral excellence and commitment
How should parents help to develop their child’s moral reasoning?
Parents should talk through real-life moral dilemmas with kids
What is the love withdrawal parental disciplinary technique?
Punishing the child by taking away love; leads to a high state of physiological arousal
What is the power assertion parental disciplinary technique?
Attempting to gain control over the adolescent or the adolescent’s resources; makes child feel unsafe, anxious, & scared; leads to a high state of physiological arousal
What is the induction parental disciplinary technique?
Using reasoning and explaining how the kid’s actions
How to raise moral children and adolescents?
Be warm & supportive, use inductive discipline
Avoid being punitive & do not use love withdrawal
Provide opportunities for perspective-taking
Discuss moral situations & decisions with children
Model moral behaviors & thinking
Help with self-regulation
What is the Hidden Curriculum in schools?
The moral atmosphere of a school; rules & regulations and the moral orientation of teachers & school administrators; rules enforce moral respect & being an ethical person
What is character education in schools?
A direct education approach that teaches basic moral literacy; prevent immoral behavior & encourage prosocial behavior
What is values clarification in schools?
Help to identify life purposes & goals; encourages students to define own values & understand the values of others
How does service learning contribute to moral development?
Benefits adolescents: higher grades, increased goal setting, higher self-esteem, improved sense of being able to make a difference, identity achievement, exploration of moral issues
What does WEIRD stand for?
Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic
How does morality differ between WEIRD cultures & non-WEIRD cultures?
WEIRD cultures have moral codes that emphasize individual rights & independence, whereas non-WEIRD cultures have duty-based communal obligations & a collective interdependence
How does being involved in a group that connects an adolescent to others in school, their communities, or faith-based institutions affect adolescents?
They report higher levels of social trust, altruism, & commitment to the common good of people
What is reciprocal socialization?
The process by which children & adolescents socialize parents just as parents socialize them
True or false: Marital satisfaction is not related to good parenting.
False; if there is marital satisfaction, parents are more likely to be more sensitive, responsive, warm, and affectionate towards their children
How do parents change as the family matures?
There can be changes in marital satisfaction, economic burdens, career reevaluation, health & body concerns
How do adolescent changes affect the family system?
Puberty, can be uncomfortable
More logical reasoning, better at arguing
Idealism - my actual parents compared to what an ideal parent is; what my parents could be; compare to friends’ parents
Parents might view changes in behavior as defiant & oppositional; feel child is rejecting them & what they have taught them
More academic work & responsibilities
More time with peers
Push for independence
What are some traits associated with a parent being an effective manager?
Provide guidance, help structure choices, manage opportunities, monitor social relationships
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Flashcard (59)