Adolescent Psych Exam 2

For Prof Fabian's Fall 2023 class

What is gender?

Characteristics related to femininity and masculinity based on social and cultural norms

What is gender identity?

A sense of one’s own gender

What are gender roles?

Societal expectations that prescribe how girls/women or boys/men should think, act, and feel

How does biology influence gender in early adolescence?

Young adolescents incorporate sexuality into their gender attitudes and behavior

Based on evolution, how did male and female genders develop?

Males & females faced different pressures when the human species was evolving because of their different roles in reproduction

Based on evolution, what constitutes the male gender?

Have as much sex as possible with many different women to pass on genes; many of the babies won’t be born/survive to adulthood; competition, risk-taking, violence

Based on evolution, what constitutes the female gender role?

If risking life getting pregnant, need a healthy & loyal male to help provide for her & protect; parenting; choose loyal mates who would provide resources

What is the social role theory?

Gender differences mainly result from the contrasting roles of females & males; ex. the social hierarchy and the division of labor, like how girl teenagers and kids have more practice taking care of babies

How do parents influence adolescents’ concept of gender?

By having different expectations for boys vs girls; ex. giving boys more freedom and monitoring/restricting girls more, having different achievement expectations, interacting differently with sons & daughters, mothers socializing daughters to be more obedient and responsible, fathers spending more time with sons than daughters

How do peers influence adolescents’ concept of gender?

Peer approval and disapproval is a powerful influence gender attitudes & behavior

How does the typical environment of an elementary school playground influence adolescents’ & children’s concept of gender?

Masculine or feminine behavior is taught and reinforced

How do typical classroom dynamics influence adolescents’ and children’s concept of gender?

Teachers more likely to view boys as problematic; Harder for boys to look up to female teachers; More attention to boys & less attention to girls; girls are less assertive

How does mass media influence adolescents’ concept of gender?

Highly stereotyped portrayal of the sexes; women as sexual objects, promotion of rape myth; early adolescents are highly sensitive to messages about gender roles; body image concerns

What is the social cognitive theory of gender?

Children’s & adolescents’ gender development is influenced by: 1.) their observation & imitation of others’ gender behavior AND 2.) the rewards & punishments they experience for gender-appropriate & gender-inappropriate behavior

What is the gender schema theory?

Gender-typing emerges as children & adolescents gradually develop gender schemas of what is gender-appropriate & gender-inappropriate in their culture; gender schemas shape how they perceive the world & what they remember; motivated to conform to one’s schemas

What is gender schema?

Organizes the world in terms of male and female

What is gender stereotyping?

Generalized beliefs about a group; Human tendency to offer explanation —> frequently incorrectly gender-based

Male and female brains are _____ (more/less) physically similar than different.

more

How do females differ from males physically?

Longer life expectancy; stronger immune systems, more resistant to infection

How do males differ from females physically?

Greater physical strength, taller; More likely to develop physical or mental disorders

Is there a gender difference in overall intellectual ability?

No

What are the cognitive differences between males and females?

Males have better visiospatial skills; females perform better in reading & writing

____ (boys/girls) are more likely to drop out of high school.

Boys

____ (boys/girls) are more engaged & have more positive attitudes about school.

Girls

____ (males/females) are more likely to enroll in college & earn a degree.

Females

How does aggression differ between genders?

Boys are more physically aggressive; Girls are more verbally aggressive; Girls engage in more relational aggression

What are some examples of relational aggression?

social ostracism, spreading malicious rumors, relationship manipulation

What is rapport talk versus report talk?

Rapport talk —> strengthening relationships, more common in women; Report talk —> giving information/facts, more common in men

Boys groups are typically…

larger, hierarchically structured, games with winners and losers, competition, not much intimate discussion, less exclusivity

Girls groups are typically…

smaller, more intimate, more discussion, exclusive

Adolescent ___ (girls/boys) engage in more self-disclosure & provide emotional support in friendships.

girls

Which gender tends to engage in more prosocial behavior?

Girls; show more empathy as well

True or False: Gender behavior often varies across contexts.

True

What does androgynous mean?

Having both masculine and feminine traits

What does traditional masculinity entail?

Boys being socialized to not show emotion & act tough; encouraged to engage in sex, substance abuse, delinquency

What is gender-role transcendence?

When a person’s competence is at issue, it should be conceptualized on an individual basis (not in regard to gender)

What is the gender intensification hypothesis?

Psychological and behavioral differences between males & females become more pronounced during early adolescence because of intensified socialization pressures to conform to masculine or feminine gender roles

How has sexual permissiveness changed in the U.S. since the 1960s?

Sexual permissiveness has become greater

How does one develop a sexual identity?

Must learn to regulate sexual behavior and avoid undesirable consequences; strongly influenced by social norms related to sex - the extent to which adolescents perceive their peers are having sex, using protection, etc.

True or false: Sexual intercourse in adolescence has been increasing recently.

False; it has been declining

How does the sexual behavior of adolescents in developing countries differ from that of developed countries?

Developing countries —> most sexually experienced females are married; Developed countries —> vast majority are unmarried

What are sexual scripts?

Role prescriptions for how individuals should behave in sexual contexts

How do sexual scripts affect adolescent girls?

Report being in love as the main reason they are sexually active; are the one to set sexual limits in a relationship

How do sexual scripts affect adolescent boys?

Ex

What is early sexual activity linked with?

Drug use, delinquency, school-related problems, forced sex, unsafe sex, an increased number of sexual partners,

What are family factors that are related to early sex?

SES & poverty

What are protective family factors for early sex?

Supportive parenting, open communication

What are peer & school factors related to early sex?

Deviant peers, sexually permissive peers

What are protective peer & school factors for early sex?

School connectedness (ex. feeling competent as a student, wanting an education), academic achievement, positive relationships

What are personality factors related to early sex?

Weak self-regulation & impulsiveness

What are protective personality factors for early sex?

Religiousity, spirituality, and positive future outlook

What are predictors of a higher likelihood of non-relationship sex?

Impulsivity, sensation seeking, & alcohol use

How do hormone levels in the prenatal period possibly influence sexual orientation?

Female fetuses exposed to extra testosterone & male fetuses exposed to low levels of testosterone —> may lead to gender atypical traits and same sex desires

What is a protective factor for sexuality minority youth when looking at discrimination, bias, & violence?

Social scripts

True or false: Many sexually active adolescents use contraceptives consistently.

False; many sexually active adolescents do not use contraceptives or use them inconsistently

True or false: The U.S. has one of the highest rates of adolescent pregnancy and childbearing in the industrialized world.

True

Why are adolescent pregnancy and childbearing rates so low in other developed countries?

Having a child is regarded as an activity for adults; the message that you are not ready to have a child is clear; early, comprehensive sex ed & clear messages about contraception; access to family planning services

True or false: Adolescent pregnancy rates have been declining in recent years.

True

Why are adolescent pregnancy rates declining?

School/community health classes, increased contraceptive use, fear of STIs

Which ethnic groups have the highest rates of adolescent pregnancy?

Latinas & african americans

What increases the likelihood of teenage childbearing?

Having a teenage mother, low parental monitoring, & poverty

In terms of health, how are adolescents are parents?

Less likely to receive prenatal care; More likely pregnancy complications because adolescent body isn’t developed enough to maintain healthy pregnancy

In terms of parenting, how are adolescents as parents?

Less competent at childrearing; have to remain self-controlled & adolescents lack self-control because brain is still developing

What are 4 recommendations to reduce adolescent pregnancy?

1.) Comprehensive sex education

2.) Access to contraceptive methods

3.) Motivation, hope for the future, & life options (success in education, career, etc.)

4.) Broad community involvement & support

What does recovery from rape depend on?

Coping abilities, psychological adjustment prior to the assault, social support, & the availability of professional counseling

What is wrong with many adolescent sex prevention programs?

These programs often assume that adolescents have the cognitive ability to anticipate consequences & weigh probable outcomes in an organized & analytical manner

How do the outcomes of sex ed programs that emphasize contraceptive knowledge differ from abstinence-only programs?

Programs that emphasize contraceptive knowledge do not increase the incidence of sex & are more likely to reduce the risk of adolescent pregnancy & STIs compared to abstinence-only programs

What makes sex ed programs work?

• Clear, specific information about sexual behaviors, contraceptive use, STIs, pregnancy, risky behaviors, etc.

• Teach and model how to deal with social pressures, how to say no, how to insist on contraception

• Discuss mature love, healthy and unhealthy relationships

• Discuss how to treat others

What is moral development?

Changes in thoughts, feelings, & behaviors regarding standards of right & wrong and how you develop these changes

What is Kohlberg’s Cognitive Developmental Theory?

Moral development is based primarily on moral reasoning that changes developmentally; stage theory; Answer questions about hypothetical moral dilemmas, and how you answer indicates your level of moral development

What is level 1 of Kohlberg’s theory?

Preconventional Reasoning: Moral reasoning is strongly influenced by external punishments & rewards

What is level 2 of Kohlberg’s theory?

Conventional Reasoning: Individuals abide by certain standards (internal) but they are the standards of others (external); social roles, laws of society

What is level 3 of Kohlberg’s theory?

Postconventional Reasoning: Morality is internalized; a personal moral code; objective, universal ethical principles

What are some critiques of Kohlberg’s theory?

1.) Too much emphasis on moral thought and not enough on moral behavior

2.) Moral thinking is more of an intuitive gut reaction, not always contemplative & conscious

3.) Emotions can actually play an important role in moral thinking

4.) Culturally biased in favor of individualistic thinking

5.) Parents can play an important role in moral development

What is moral competence?

Capabilities, skills, what they know, their awareness of moral rules, & cognitive ability

What is moral performance?

The enactment of moral competence behaviors in specific situations; determined by motivation, rewards, & incentives

What is the Social Cognitive Theory of Moral Development?

Having both moral competence & moral performance

What is altruism?

An unselfish interest in helping another person

How do strong feelings of empathy, sympathy, admiration, self-esteem, anger, outrage, shame, and guilt affect adolescents and their moral development?

Can influence adolescents to act in accord with standards of right & wrong

What are the 3 aspects of moral personality?

Moral identity, moral character, and moral exemplars

What is moral identity?

Moral ideas and commitments are central to one’s life

What is moral character?

Having strong convictions, persisting, and overcoming distractions and obstacles

What are moral exemplars?

Models who have a moral personality, identity, character, and set of virtues that reflect moral excellence and commitment

How should parents help to develop their child’s moral reasoning?

Parents should talk through real-life moral dilemmas with kids

What is the love withdrawal parental disciplinary technique?

Punishing the child by taking away love; leads to a high state of physiological arousal

What is the power assertion parental disciplinary technique?

Attempting to gain control over the adolescent or the adolescent’s resources; makes child feel unsafe, anxious, & scared; leads to a high state of physiological arousal

What is the induction parental disciplinary technique?

Using reasoning and explaining how the kid’s actions

How to raise moral children and adolescents?

• Be warm & supportive, use inductive discipline

• Avoid being punitive & do not use love withdrawal

• Provide opportunities for perspective-taking

• Discuss moral situations & decisions with children

• Model moral behaviors & thinking

• Help with self-regulation

What is the Hidden Curriculum in schools?

The moral atmosphere of a school; rules & regulations and the moral orientation of teachers & school administrators; rules enforce moral respect & being an ethical person

What is character education in schools?

A direct education approach that teaches basic moral literacy; prevent immoral behavior & encourage prosocial behavior

What is values clarification in schools?

Help to identify life purposes & goals; encourages students to define own values & understand the values of others

How does service learning contribute to moral development?

Benefits adolescents: higher grades, increased goal setting, higher self-esteem, improved sense of being able to make a difference, identity achievement, exploration of moral issues

What does WEIRD stand for?

Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic

How does morality differ between WEIRD cultures & non-WEIRD cultures?

WEIRD cultures have moral codes that emphasize individual rights & independence, whereas non-WEIRD cultures have duty-based communal obligations & a collective interdependence

How does being involved in a group that connects an adolescent to others in school, their communities, or faith-based institutions affect adolescents?

They report higher levels of social trust, altruism, & commitment to the common good of people

What is reciprocal socialization?

The process by which children & adolescents socialize parents just as parents socialize them

True or false: Marital satisfaction is not related to good parenting.

False; if there is marital satisfaction, parents are more likely to be more sensitive, responsive, warm, and affectionate towards their children

How do parents change as the family matures?

There can be changes in marital satisfaction, economic burdens, career reevaluation, health & body concerns

How do adolescent changes affect the family system?

• Puberty, can be uncomfortable

• More logical reasoning, better at arguing

• Idealism - my actual parents compared to what an ideal parent is; what my parents could be; compare to friends’ parents

• Parents might view changes in behavior as defiant & oppositional; feel child is rejecting them & what they have taught them

• More academic work & responsibilities

• More time with peers

• Push for independence

What are some traits associated with a parent being an effective manager?

Provide guidance, help structure choices, manage opportunities, monitor social relationships