Learning Psychology 12

Learning

refers to relatively permanent changes in

behaviour resulting from practice or experience.

Classical Conditioning

Learning by association”

• called “reflexive learning”

Learned/ taught ws behavior towards a person and animal without reward or punishment.

Operant Conditioning

A form of learning where the probability of a behavioural response is changed by its consequences. Good or bad consequences.

Ex. Rewards/punishments

Ivan Pavlov

Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist known for his work on classical conditioning. In his famous experiment, he trained dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell, even when no food was present. This experiment showed that animals can learn to associate one stimulus with another.

Pavlov's work has had a significant impact on psychology and behaviorism. His concept of classical conditioning is still used today to explain how people learn and form associations.

Ivan Pavlov

The Father of Classical Conditioning

Unconditional Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that will always and naturally

ELICIT a response.

A item.

Unconditional Response (UCR)

any response that always and naturally occurs

(MOST be a REFLEXIVE Response i.e. salivation or eye blink)

Action

Neutral Stimulus

any stimulus that does not naturally elicit a response (i.e. ringing a bell)

Conditional Stimulus

The item sound or action that make the trained animal react.

any stimulus that will, after association

with an UCS, cause a conditioned response (CR) when present to a

subject by itself

Conditioned Response (CR)

Trained response to an action or sound or item.

any response that occurs upon the presentation of the conditional stimulus

Generalization

Tendency to respond to stimuli that “resembles” the Conditioned Stimulus (Learned response)

ie. study showed abused kids had a fear response when they saw an angry face of strangers on a computer.

Stimulus Discrimination

learned ability to distinguish between stimulus

• the learner responds only to certain stimuli (conditioned stimuli), and does not respond to stimuli that is similar.

ex. Two same sounds of different pitch. Opposite of Generalization

Extinction

the diminishing of a learned response

• requires weakening of the association between the CS and the CR by repeatedly presenting the CS alone.

i.e. ringing the bell without showing the

dog food. Eventually the dog will stop

drooling at the sound of the bell.

Spontaneous Recovery

Following extinction.

• the CR may reappear periodically if the CS is presented again.

• Requires a break or time between extinction and recovery.

• CR is not as strong as it was before extinction

Operant response

strengthened or repeated when followed by a reinforcement and reduced or eliminated when followed by punishment

A response that could be modified, but it’s consequences operating responses offer way dividing ongoing behaviours into meaningful and measurable units.

Law of Effect

Behavioural responses are: strengthened or repeated when followed by a reinforcement and reduced or eliminated when followed by punishment

The principal that behaviour follow a positive (Pleasure) consequences are strengthen and (thus will likely occur in the future), while behaviours followed by negative consequences are weakened.

B. F. Skinner

(1904-1990)

 famous for his research = behaviourism

 Focused on observable behaviours

 No free will all behaviour a result of

conditioning

 work with rats & pigeons determined

schedules of reinforcement

Chaining

A behaviour/response is broken

down into a sequence of smaller

tasks.

 The learner is taught only one step at

a time and is not taught any future

steps until the current step has been

mastered.

 These individual behaviours will be

combined to form more complex

responses

Ex. Driving dog

Shaping

new behaviour is produced by reinforcing

responses that are similar to the desired

response.

 “small steps” towards the desired behaviour is

rewarded. For example:

• rewarding the pigeon for turning in the

direction of the button

• rewarding the pigeon for standing by the button

• rewarding the pigeon touching/peaking the

bu

Reinforcement

Encouraging a behaviour

Positive reinforcement: giving something desired.

negative reinforcement: termination of an unpleasant or adverse stimulus after performing a certain behaviour. Removing something you don’t want.

Punishment

Discourage a behaviour

Positive (+) Punishment: The addition of an undesirable event or stimulus that follows a behaviour.

Negative (-) Punishment: Subtraction of a reinforcing stimulus after a perceived inappropriate/undesirable behaviour.

Primary reinforcers:

 stimulus such as food, water, or sex, that is innately satisfying and requires no learning on the part of the subject to become pleasurable

Conditioned/Secondary reinforcers:

Any stimulus that has acquired its reinforcing power through experience; they are learned, such as money, chocolate, good grades.

Continues Reinforcement

A continuous reinforcement schedule (CRF) is one in which each specified response is reinforced. For example every chore done is a sticker earned.

Partial Reinforcement also known as intermittent Reinforcement

An intermittent/partial reinforcement schedule is one in which only some responses are reinforced

When you want to reinforce based on a certain number of responses occurring (for example, doing a certain number of math problems correctly), you can use a ratio schedule

When you want to reinforce the response after a certain amount of time has passed (for example when a teacher gives a midterm test), you can use an interval schedule

Schedule of Reinforcers

Ratio (responses) Schedules

Fixed Ratio

Variable Ratio

Interval (time) Schedules

Fixed Interval

Variable Interval

Fixed Ratio Schedu

: reinforcement is contingent upon a FIXED, predictable number of RESPONSES

 Characteristic pattern of behaviour:

High rate of response

Short pause following each reinforcer

 Reading a chapter then taking a break

 5 responses needed to get a reinforcement

Variable Ratio Schedule

: reinforcement is contingent upon a VARYING, unpredictable number of RESPONSES

Creates very persistent & long-term behaviours

 Hunting, fishing, golfing, shooting hoops, and telemarketing

includes unwanted behaviors like begging, and gambling.

Fixed Interval Schedules

: reinforcement is contingent upon the response after a FIXED, predictable period of TIME

schedule causes high amounts of responding near the end of the interval but much slower responding immediately after the delivery of the reinforcer.

Ex. Getting payed for a job monthly or every 2 weeks

Variable Interval Schedule

: reinforcement is contingent upon the response after a VARYING, unpredictable period of TIME.

 creates slow & steady responses with little change.

 Resistant to extinction

Checking for a text message or your email

Employer periodically checking your work.

Social Cognitive Learning Or Observational Learning Theory

Social-cognitive learning is a theory that explains how people learn by observing others. It was developed by Albert Bandura, a psychologist who is famous for his Bobo doll experiment.

In this experiment, Bandura showed children a video of an adult hitting a Bobo doll. The children who watched the video were more likely to hit the Bobo doll themselves, even though they had never seen it before. This experiment showed that people can learn new behaviors by observing others.

In imitation, a person simply copies what the model does.

• Observational learning is much more complex.

• By observing others, people acquire knowledge of rules, skills, strategies. Beliefs, and attitudes.

Albert Bandura

Albert Bandura's four-step process of observational learning is a model of how people learn by observing others. Also he is one of the founders.

Albert Bandura is considered the leading proponent of Social-Cognitive Learning.

Four processes of observational learning

ATTENTION notices something in the environment

RETENTION remembers what was noticed

REPRODUCTION produces an action that is a copy of what was noticed

MOTIVATION consequence changes the probability the behaviour will be emitted again

Modeling

Characteristics of Effective Models

The model …

• Competent or skilled

• Has prestige and power

• consistent with the observer’s

interests & typical behaviours

• Exhibits behaviour relevant to the observer’s situation. (Could be a stranger in this case)

Modeling is who u are imitating

Vicarious Learning

even when we don’t directly participate in event

• indirectly by watching others & determining if the consequences are + or -

Ex. U see someone cheat the teacher also notices and yelled at the cheaters u observe/learn that if u cheat the teacher will yell at u.

Prosocial Effect

Modeling can promote positive, constructive, helpful behaviour.

Prosocial means behaving in a way that is helpful to others. It's the opposite of antisocial.

Antisocial Effect

Modeling can promote negative, defiant, or abnormal behaviour that break from the social norms

Ex. Repeated exposure to violence and antisocial behaviour on TV has shown an increase in

• Bullying

• Reduced Empathy (Desensitization)

• Gender Stereotyping