AP Psychology Vocab: Unit 0

Cultural Norms

The shared, unwritten rules, values, and expectations that govern acceptable behavior within a specific society or cultural group

Cognitive Bias

Predictable error in thinking that occurs when the brain uses mental shortcuts (brain trades accuracy for speed leads to flawed judgment)

Confirmation Bias

Cognitive shortcut where you search for information that matches what you already believe

Hindsight Bias

Tendency to falsely believe, after learning an outcome, that you could have predicted it. Is widely known as the "I knew it all along"

Overconfidence

The cognitive bias where a person is more certain than they are correct

Descriptive/Correlational Method: Case Study

An intense, deep look at a single person or small group to find universal truths

Descriptive/Correlational Method: Naturalistic Observation

Watching and recording behavior in real-world settings without touching or changing anything

Descriptive/Correlational Method: Survey

Asking people questions to self-report their thoughts, opinions, or behaviors

Likert Scale

A survey tool used in psychology research to measure attitudes, opinions, and values

Self - Report Bias

Occurs when participants provide inaccurate information about themselves, behaviors, etc

Qualitative

Descriptive, non-numerical data—such as written descriptions, interview transcripts, quotes, or direct observations

Informed Consent

Essential ethical requirement where researchers must explain the general nature, procedures, potential risks, and benefits of a study to participants before they voluntarily agree to take part

Confederates

Individuals who act as fake participants or bystanders in a research study, but are secretly working for the experimenter to help manipulate the social situation

Debriefing

Mandatory ethical procedure conducted after a study finishes where the researcher fully explains the true purpose of the experiment

Institutional Review (Board/IRB)

An independent ethics committee at a university or research institution that screens proposed research studies before they begin to ensure human participants are treated ethically and protected from physical or psychological harm.

Experimental Research Method: Independent Variable

The exact factor the experimenter changes or manipulate

Experimental Research Method: Dependent Variable

Outcome or measurement that a researcher tracks in an experiment

Experimental Research Method: Confounding Variable

Any unwanted outside factor besides the IV that might mess up the results

Experimental Research Method: Random Assignment

Placing participants into experimental and control groups by pure chance to balance out differences

Experimental Research Method: Double Blind Procedure

When neither the participants nor the researchers know who gets the real treatment or a fake placebo

Experimental Methodology

Quantitative research method used to establish cause-and-effect relationships by actively manipulating an independent variable while keeping all other confounding variables controlled

Hypothesis & Falsifiable

Hypothesis is a testable, precise prediction about the outcome of a study (often phrased as "If... then..."). To be falsifiable, a hypothesis must be structured in a way that allows empirical evidence to potentially prove it false if it is incorrect

Operational Definitions

Detailed statements outlining how variables are defined, measured, and manipulated within a study

Experimenter Bias

Errors or unconscious actions introduced by the researcher that unintentionally influence the outcome of a study

Social Desirability Bias

Type of response bias where research participants answer questions in a way that makes them look good

Experimental Group

Group of participants in an experiment who are exposed to the independent variable being tested

Control Group

Group of participants in an experiment who are treated identically to the experimental group except they do not receive the independent variable

Placebo

Inactive, harmless substance or sham procedure (like a sugar pill) given to control group participants that has no physical effect

Single-Blind (Procedure)

Experimental design in which the participants do not know whether they are in the experimental group or the control group, which prevents participant expectations and placebo effects from biasing the results

Representative (Sample)

Sample that accurately reflects the key demographic characteristics (e.g., age, gender, ethnicity) of the larger target population

Random Sampling

Method of selecting participants from a population where every single individual has an equal chance of being chosen

Convenience Sampling

On-random sampling method that selects individuals who are easiest or most accessible to reach, which often leads to unrepresentative data.

Sampling Bias

Flaw in research design where the sample selected does not accurately represent the target population, favoring certain types of participants over others

Generalized (Generalizability)

Extent to which the findings and conclusions of a research study can be accurately applied to the broader target population beyond the specific sample tested

Correlation

Measures the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables without manipulating them

Meta-Analysis

A statistical technique that combines and analyzes the results of many different existing studies on the same topic to identify overall trend

Directionality (Problem)

Imitation of correlational research where, even if two variables are related, it is impossible to determine which variable caused the change in the other

Third Variable Problem

Limitation in correlational studies where an unmeasured, outside variable (a confounding variable) might actually be responsible for the observed relationship between two variables

Range & Standard Deviation

Range - difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution

Standard deviation - measures how much individual scores vary, on average, around the mean.

Normal Curve & Skewness

Normal curve - symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution where the mean, median, and mode all sit at the center

Skewness - when an extreme score pulls the tail of the distribution to one side either positively or negatively

Bimodal Distribution

Frequency distribution that features two distinct peaks (modes), suggesting the dataset may contain two distinct sub-groups

Regression Toward the Mean

Statistical tendency for extreme or unusual scores on a first measurement to naturally move closer back toward the average (mean) when measured a second time

Scatter Plot & Correlation Coefficient

Scatter plot - graph of plotted points showing the relationship between two variables

Correlation coefficient - ($r$) is a number between $-1.00$ and $+1.00$ that quantifies the direction ($+$ or $-$) and strength (closer to $1.00$) of that relationship

Statistical Significance

Mathematical determination (usually $p < 0.05$) indicating that the observed differences between groups in an experiment are very unlikely to have occurred by random chance, suggesting the independent variable had a real effect