Roman Republic, Religion, and Medieval Feudal Systems Overview

Struggle of the Orders

The 200-year political conflict between patricians and plebeians in early Rome, in which plebeians fought for greater political rights, representation, and protection under the law.

Patrician

A member of Rome's aristocratic elite who held most political power during the early Republic.

Plebe

A plebeian; a member of Rome's commoner class who demanded political rights from patricians.

Plebiscites

Laws passed by the Plebeian Assembly; after 287 BCE they applied to all Roman citizens.

12 Tables

Rome's first written law code (450 BCE) that publicly displayed legal standards to protect plebeian rights and limit patrician judicial power.

Paterfamilias

The male head of a Roman household with legal authority over the family, property, and religious duties.

Patroncinium

The Roman patron-client relationship in which a wealthy patron provided protection and resources in exchange for loyalty and service.

Etruscans

A pre-Roman civilization in Italy that heavily influenced Roman religion, architecture, dress, and kingship.

Consul

One of two annually elected leaders of the Roman Republic who commanded armies and executed laws.

Praetor

A Roman magistrate primarily responsible for administering justice and serving as a judge.

Centuriate Assembly

A voting assembly organized by military class and wealth; elected consuls and praetors and declared war.

Senate

Rome's most powerful governing body composed of elite men who controlled finances, foreign policy, and advised magistrates.

Censors

Officials who assessed property, conducted the census, regulated public morals, and selected Senate membership.

Res Publica

"The public thing"; the Roman Republic — a system of elected offices and shared governance.

Religio Licta

A "permitted religion" in the Roman Empire protected from persecution.

Pluto/Hades

God of the underworld in Roman/Greek religion.

Jupiter/Zeus

King of the gods; deity of sky and thunder in Roman/Greek religion.

Neptune/Poseidon

God of the sea, earthquakes, and horses in Roman/Greek myth.

Minerva/Athena

Goddess of wisdom, strategy, and crafts in Roman/Greek religion.

Mars/Ares

God of war; in Rome also associated with agriculture and state power.

Mithras

God of a popular Roman mystery cult among soldiers; emphasized loyalty, discipline, and salvation.

Arianism

A Christian heresy teaching that Christ was created by God and not co-eternal or fully divine; condemned at Nicaea.

Docetism

A belief that Jesus only seemed human and did not have a physical body, emphasizing his divinity.

Gnostics

Followers of a religious movement teaching salvation through secret knowledge and a dualistic view of the world.

Nicaea

325, The first ecumenical council called by Constantine; produced the Nicene Creed and condemned Arianism.

Eremus

The "desert," symbolic place for early Christian ascetics seeking solitude and spiritual purity.

Hermit

A religious ascetic who lives alone to devote themselves to prayer and discipline.

Anthony of Egypt

251-356, Founder of Christian monasticism; retreated to the desert and inspired others to adopt ascetic life.

Ascetism

Strict self-discipline and renunciation of physical comforts to achieve spiritual purity.

Pachomius

290-346, Founder of communal monasticism (cenobitism); established organized monasteries with rules.

'Rule'

A formal written guide organizing monastic life, discipline, prayer, and labor.

Basil the Great

330-379, Bishop who promoted moderate communal monasticism and wrote the influential Rule of St. Basil.

Benedict of Nursia

480-543, Founder of Western monastic tradition; wrote the Rule of St. Benedict, emphasizing balance of prayer and work.

Regula Benedicti

The Rule of Benedict; foundation of Western monastic life emphasizing obedience, stability, and community.

Scholasticism

Medieval intellectual method using logic and reason to reconcile faith and classical philosophy.

Manorialism

Medieval economic system where peasants (serfs) worked a lord's estate in exchange for protection and a place to live.

Vassalage

A social bond in which a vassal swore loyalty to a lord in return for land and protection.

Feudalism

Medieval political system based on land-holding, military service, and lord-vassal relationships.

Vassals

Individuals who pledged loyalty and military service to a lord in exchange for a fief.

Fiefdom

Land or estate granted to a vassal by a lord in return for service.

Serfs

Peasants bound to the land who owed labor to a lord but could not be bought or sold like slaves.

Vikings

Norse seafarers known for raiding, trading, and settling across Europe in the early Middle Ages.

Saracens

Medieval European term for Arab or Muslim peoples, often used during the Crusades.

Magyars

Nomadic people from Central Asia who raided Europe before settling in Hungary.

Mohammed

Prophet and founder of Islam who received revelations recorded in the Qur'an.

Khadija

Muhammad's first wife and first convert to Islam; wealthy merchant who supported his mission.

Mecca

Holy city of Islam and Muhammad's birthplace; site of the Ka'ba.

Ka'ba

Cube-shaped sanctuary in Mecca believed to contain sacred relics; focal point of Islamic pilgrimage.

Qur'an

Holy book of Islam containing revelations given to Muhammad.

Hashim

Muhammad's clan within the Quraysh tribe.

Medina

City where Muhammad fled during the Hijra; first Muslim community formed there.

Abu Bakr

First caliph after Muhammad; consolidated Muslim rule and began Islamic expansion.

Caliphs

Political and religious successors to Muhammad in early Islam.

Shi'ite

Muslim group believing leadership should stay within Muhammad's family (Ali's descendants).

Sunni

Largest Muslim branch; believes leadership should go to the most capable community member.

Dhimmi

Non-Muslims living under Islamic rule protected by law in exchange for paying the jizya tax.

Hadith

Recorded sayings and actions of Muhammad; major source of Islamic law after the Qur'an.

Jihad

"Struggle"; interpreted as personal spiritual striving or, in some contexts, holy war.

Cato the Elder

Roman senator known for strict morals and urging the destruction of Carthage.

Tiberius Gracchus

Tribune who proposed land reform to help the poor; assassinated by Senate supporters.

Gaius Gracchus

Tribune who expanded reforms, grain laws, and citizenship; also killed.

Gaius Marius

Roman general who reformed the army by recruiting landless citizens and creating professional soldiers.

Marius's Mules

Nickname for Marius's soldiers who carried their own heavy equipment.

Sulla

Roman general who marched on Rome twice and became dictator, weakening the Republic.

Pompey

Celebrated Roman general, member of the First Triumvirate, later rival of Caesar.

Gaius Julius Caesar

Roman general and statesman who conquered Gaul, took power as dictator, and ended the Republic.

Crassus

Wealthiest Roman and member of the First Triumvirate; killed in Parthia.

First Triumvirate

Informal alliance of Caesar, Pompey, and Crassus to dominate Roman politics.

Marc Antony

Caesar's ally and member of the Second Triumvirate; defeated at Actium.

Marcus Lepidus

Third member of the Second Triumvirate; eventually sidelined.

Octavian

Caesar's adopted son who became Augustus, the first Roman emperor.

Second Triumvirate

Legal alliance of Octavian, Antony, and Lepidus formed to defeat Caesar's assassins.

Battle of Actium

31 BCE naval battle where Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra.

Merovingians

Early medieval Frankish dynasty before the Carolingians.

Clovis

First king to unite the Franks and convert to Christianity.

Carolingians

Dynasty founded by Charles Martel; ruled Western Europe after Merovingians.

Charles Martel

Frankish leader who defeated Muslim forces at the Battle of Tours (732).

Battle of Tours or Poitiers

732, Battle where Charles Martel halted Muslim expansion into Europe.

Pepin (Pippin) the Short

First Carolingian king, father of Charlemagne.

Charlemange

Carolingian king who expanded his empire and revived learning; crowned emperor in 800.

Holy Roman Empire

Medieval empire in Central Europe developed from Charlemagne's realm.

Leo III

Pope who crowned Charlemagne "Emperor of the Romans."

Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle)

Charlemagne's capital and cultural center.

Louis the Pious

Charlemagne's son whose weak rule led to the empire's fragmentation.

Germanic tribes

Various European tribal groups (Franks, Goths, Vandals, etc.) that migrated into Roman territory.

Franks

Germanic tribe that established the foundations of medieval France.

Visigoths

Germanic people who sacked Rome in 410 and settled in Spain.

Ostrogoths

Germanic tribe that took control of Italy after Rome's fall.

Huns

Nomadic warriors from Central Asia who invaded Europe and pressured Germanic tribes.

Foederati

Tribal allies who served Rome militarily in exchange for land and privileges.

Barrack emperors

Short-reigning emperors installed by the army during Rome's 3rd-century crisis.

Decius

Emperor who initiated empire-wide persecution of Christians.

Valerian

Roman emperor captured by Persians; known for persecuting Christians.

Diocletian

Emperor who divided the empire and launched the Great Persecution.

Constantine

First Christian emperor; legalized Christianity and founded Constantinople.

Alaric

Visigoth king who famously sacked Rome in 410.

Odoacer

Germanic leader who deposed the last Western Roman emperor in 476.

Polybius

Greek historian who explained Rome's mixed constitution and rise to power.

Pyrrhus of Epirus

Greek king whose costly victories against Rome gave the term "Pyrrhic victory."

Carthage

North African trading empire and Rome's main rival in the Punic Wars.