Ethics and Philosophy Review (Pages 1-4)

A comprehensive set of practice flashcards covering major topics from Pages 1-4 notes (ethics, Socrates, Aristotle, Augustine, Aquinas, Euthyphro, Marx, Freud).

What are Hobbes’ seven assumptions about the state of nature?

(1) Equality of need; (2) Scarcity of resources; (3) Essential equality of human power; (4) Limited altruism; (5) Vulnerability to harm; (6) Rational self-interest; (7) State of war without rules.

What is universalism in ethics?

The belief that there are universal moral principles valid for all people, everywhere.

What is relativism in ethics?

The view that moral truths depend on cultural or societal norms (conventionalism).

What is subjectivism in ethics?

The belief that moral truths are based only on personal opinions or feelings.

What are the consequences of universalism vs relativism?

Universalism allows for moral critique across cultures; relativism avoids ethnocentrism but can lead to tolerance of harmful practices.

Why is ethics essential to human flourishing?

Because living well requires guiding principles for justice, fairness, and virtue that help individuals and societies thrive.

What did Socrates believe was the goal for humans?

To achieve eudaimonia (flourishing, true happiness).

How did Socrates argue for this objective goal?

Through rational inquiry and dialogue, showing that virtue and knowledge lead to true happiness.

How does one attain eudaimonia, according to Socrates?

By cultivating virtue through self-knowledge and constant questioning.

What is Socrates’ argument that “no one knowingly does evil”?

People do wrong out of ignorance; if they truly knew what was good, they would choose it.

Why is Socrates considered the Father of Western Philosophy?

He introduced systematic questioning (the Socratic Method) and shifted philosophy from nature to ethics.

What did Aristotle see as the goal for humans?

Eudaimonia, achieved by living a life of virtue in accordance with reason.

How does one discover/attain virtue, according to Aristotle?

By practicing habits (ethics of character), following the “Golden Mean” between extremes, and using reason.

How is Aristotle different from Socrates?

Socrates emphasized knowledge of virtue, while Aristotle emphasized cultivating virtuous habits through practice.

How did Augustine connect Plato with Christian theology?

He used Plato’s ideas of eternal forms and the highest good to explain God and the soul’s longing for divine truth.

How did Aquinas connect Aristotle with Christian theology?

He adopted Aristotle’s focus on reason, virtue, and natural order to argue that reason and faith are compatible.

What is Natural Law Theory?

The belief that moral principles are built into human nature by God and discoverable through reason, guiding human flourishing.

Why is Euthyphro the perfect person to discuss holiness with Socrates?

Because he is a religious expert and is prosecuting his own father for impiety.

What is the point of their conversation?

To define piety/holiness and test whether it can be objectively defined.

What is Euthyphro’s first definition of piety, and Socrates’ response?

Piety = prosecuting wrongdoers → Socrates: That’s an example, not a definition.

What is Euthyphro’s second definition of piety, and Socrates’ response?

Piety = what is dear to the gods → Socrates: Gods disagree.

What is Euthyphro’s third definition of piety, and Socrates’ response?

Piety = what all gods love → Socrates: Leads to the Euthyphro dilemma.

What is the Euthyphro dilemma?

Is something good because the gods love it, or do the gods love it because it is good?

What happens if you take the first horn (good = loved by the gods)?

Morality becomes arbitrary, dependent only on divine command.

What happens if you take the second horn (gods love it because it’s good)?

Goodness exists independently of the gods.

What is the dilemma meant to disprove?

Divine Command Theory (the idea morality depends only on God’s will).

What is Socrates’ answer to Euthyphro’s question?

He never provides a final definition, showing the difficulty of defining piety.

What was Marx and Freud’s shared position on religion?

Both saw religion as harmful and an illusion that should be overcome.

What three reasons does Marx give for abandoning religion?

(1) It masks suffering, (2) It justifies social inequalities, (3) It prevents people from seeking real solutions.

Why did Marx call religion the “opium of the people”?

Because it dulls the pain of oppression but prevents people from addressing its root causes.

What is Freud’s twofold thesis in The Future of an Illusion?

(1) Religion is an illusion based on human wishes, (2) It is harmful to human development.

What answer would a believer give to “Why believe?” and Freud’s response?

Believer: Religion gives comfort, guidance, and moral order. Freud: These are wish-fulfillments, not truths.

What objections does Freud address, and how does he respond?

Objection: Religion is necessary for morality. Response: Morality can exist without religion, through reason and culture.

What two parts of human life are negatively affected by religion, according to Freud?

(1) Intellectual development—discourages critical thought; (2) Psychological maturity—keeps people dependent on an illusion.