UWorld Motivation, Emotion, Attitudes, Personality, and Stress Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders

Somatic Symptom Disorder

Extreme concern regarding one or more physical symptoms (fatigue and pain)

Conversion Disorder

Neurological symptoms (paralysis and blindness) that are not explainable by a medical condition

Illness Anxiety Disorder

Preoccupation with having or acquiring a serious disease (HIV or cancer)

Factitious Disorder

Symptom or illness are intentionally fabricated without obvious external gain (Disability benefits)

Dissociative Disorder

Characterized by disruptions in memory and and identity.

Personality Disorder

Characterized by inflexible and enduring patterns of thought (personality traits) that differ markedly from social norms, are stable over time and across environments while causing significant distress or impairment in functioning.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

An anxiety disorder characterized bt excessibe and uncontrollable worry about a range of topics (health, finances, career relationships.

Common Sense Theory Example

Stimulus (Wolf) → Subjective experience (fear) → Body Response (arousal)

“My heart is pounding because I am afraid”

James-Lange Theory Example

Stimulus (Wolf) → Body Response (arousal) → Subjective experience (fear)

“I am afraid because my heart is pounding”

Cannon Bard Theory Example

Stimulus (Wolf) → Body Response (arousal) AND Subjective experience (fear)

“My heart is pounding AND the wolf makes me aftaid”

Schacter-Singer Theory Example

Stimulus (Wolf) → Body Response (arousal) → Interpretation → Subjective experience (fear)

“My pounding heart signifies fear because I have appraised the situation as dangerous”

James Lange Theory

Specific emotions are elicited by stimuli (loud noise) that produces specific physiological reactions(increased heart rate) which are transmitted to the brain via the spinal cord (white matter)

Central Nervous System CNS

The spinal cord contains grey matter (nonmyelinated axons) surrounded by white matter (myelinated axons). Spinal cord white matter is composed of afferent (ascending) axonal tracts that carry sensory information from the body to the brain and efferent (descending) axonal tracts that carry motor commands from the brain to the body.

Schachter Singer Theory

Emotion results from physiological arousal by cognitive appraisal (sensory information AND interpretation of environmental cues are required)

Cannon Bard Theory

Physiological arousal and emotion are independent processes that occur simultaneously. (Experience of emotion is not tied to sensory information is not required)

Theory of Universal Emotions

Certain emotions are expressed and detected by everyone regardless of culture.

Locus of Control LOC

Refers to an individual’s beliefs about who or what controls the outcome of an event or situation.

External Locus of Control

Individuals feel that outcomes are due to factors beyond their control such as luck, fate, or powerful others. May be correlated with lower self esteem, feeling more stressed, lesser need for achievement/success, and psychological symptoms (depression and hopelessness) in extreme cases

Internal Locus of Control

Individuals feel that outcomes are due to factors within their control. Have high self esteem, blame self for failures, greater need for achievement/success, and psychological symptoms (mania and grandiosity) in extreme cases.

Limbic System

A network of brain regions involved in emotion, learning, and memory, Includes the amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and cingulate gyrus.

Hypothalamus

Regulates the pituitary gland and the autonomic nervous system. It controls the release of hormones that maintain homeostatic function (parasympathetic rest and digest response) or prepare the body to respond to a stressor (sympathetic fight and flight response). The hypothalamus is responsible for the physiological component of emotion like heart rate or respiration rate.

Prefrontal Cortex

Regulates emotional responses (decreasing anger so you do not yell at your boss)

Hippocampus

Memory consolidation

Posterior Pituitary

A collection of hypothalamic axonal projections, releases the hormones oxytocin and vasopressin.

Vicarious Emotions

Involve the ability to feel how someone else feels and are thought to encourage prosocial behaviors through shared emotional experience.

Mirror Neurons

Which fire both during observation and performance of a behavior, play a role in the experience of vicarious emotions.

Biological Differences

Studies suggest a correlation between anger/aggression and testosterone levels

Social Differences

Girls are socialized to be more emotionally expressive than boys and are encouraged to seek emotional support stressful situations. Boys are not encouraged to express emotions that will make them appear weak and are encouraged to deal with stress with goal directed problem solving.

Cultural Differences

Western cultures value individualism and emotional expression is more acceptable than in non western cultures which value collectivism. Differences in expression of emotion between women and men tend to be more pronounced in Western cultures which stereotype women as emotional and men as rational.

Functionalism Theory

Society = an organism

Each part of society works to maintain dynamic equilibrium (homeostasis)

Perspective: Macro

Theorists: Emily Durkheim and Talcott Parsons

Social Constructionism Theory

Social actors that define what is real. Knowledge about world based on their interactionists.

Perspective: Macro or Micro

Theorists: None

Conflict Theory

Society = struggle for limited resources. Inequality based on social class.

Perspective: Macro

Theorists: Karl Marx and Max Weber

Symbolic Interactionism

Meaning and value attached to symbols and individual interactions based on these symbols

Perspective: Micro

Theorists: Charles Cooley and George Herbert Mead

Rational Choice/Social Exchange

Individual behaviors and interactions attempt to maximize social gain and minimize personal cost

Perspective: Micro

Feminist Theory

Examines gender inequality in society

Perspective: Micro and Macro

Cannon Bard Theory of Emotion

Physiological arousal and the experience of emotion occur simultaneously and independentlu.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Predicts that contradictory or incompatible beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors cause a state of mental discomfort (cognitive dissonance) that results in motivation to reduce the conflict by aligning thoughts and/or behaviors.

Dissociative Disorder

Characterized by disruptions to memory and identity.

Dissociative Identity Disorder (Dissociative Disorders)

Presence of two or more distinct personalities and amnesia.

Dissociative Amnesia (Dissociative Disorders)

Inability to recall important autobiographical information.

Factitious Disorder

A somatic symptom and related disorder that involves falsifying physical or psychological symptoms without obvious external gain *get disability benefits)

Personality Disorder

Characterized by inflexible and enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that differ markedly from social norms and cause functional impairments. Have pathological personality traits and can’t relate to others. Personality disorders are stable over time and across environments and cause significant distress or impairment of functioning.

Cluster A Personality Disorder

Odd/Eccentric. Paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal

Cluster B Personality Disorder

Dramatic/Emotional/Erratic.

Antisocial, borderline. histrionic, and narrcissitic.

Cluster C Personality Disorder

Anxious/Fearful. Avoidant, dependent, and obsessive compulsive

Psychoanalytic Theory

Defense mechanisms are a largely unconscious means of dealing with anxiety or stress through distorting or ignoring aspects of reality.

Denial

Refusing or being unable to recognize unacceptable thoughts/behaviors. (Insisting you are not angry when you are angry)

Projection

Attributing unacceptable thoughts/behaviors to someone or something else (calling the sidewalk stupid after tripping)

Rationalization

Making excuses for unacceptable thoughts and behaviors (Justifying cheating because the class is impossible)

Regression

Behaving as if much younger to avoid unacceptable thoughts and behaviors. (Moving back in with parents to avoid adult responsibilities)

Repression

Blocking unacceptable thoughts and behaviors from consciousness. (Being unaware of a traumatic past experience)

Displacement

Taking out unacceptable behaviors and thoughts on easy targets. (punching a pillow when angry at parents)

Sublimation

Transforming unacceptable thoughts and behaviors into acceptable thoughts and behaviors

(Taking up boxing as a way to channel one’s anger)

Reaction Formation

Behaving in a manner opposite to unacceptable thoughts and behaviors (Expressing love for a person one despises)

Identification

The act of internalizing aspects of others. ( a child who develops the same behaviors as their parents)

Generalized Anxiety Disorder

Excessive, uncontrollable worry about a range of topics. Muscle tension; difficulty concentrating or sleeping; feeling restless, fatigued, or irritable

Panic Disorder

Repeated, uncontrollable, and unpredictable panic attacks (overwhelming surges of anxiety that peak within minutes)

Specific Phobia

Excessive and irrational fear of a specific situation (flying) or animal/object (spider)

Social Anxiety Disorder/Social Phobia

Intense fear of scrutiny or rejection in social situations (public speaking or asking someone on a date)

The James Lange Theory Proposes that:

Physiological reactions produce emotions.

The Schachter Singer Theory Proposes that:

both a physiological response and cognitive interpretation are required for emotion.

The Cannon Bard Theory Proposes that:

physiological and emotional reactions occur independently and simultaneously.

Universal Emotions

Happiness, anger, fear, sadness, disgust, and surprise. Universal emotions do not require a high level of cognition. Facial expressions unique each universal emotion are easily recognized by everyone regardless of culture.

3 Components of Human Emotion

Cognitive, behavioral, and physiological

Cognitive Human Emotion

Mental processes accompanying an emotion and involved in appraisal of the situation.
Examples: Thoughts, beliefs, expectations, and rationalization

Behavioral Human Emotion

Immediate outward reaction to an emotion that is involuntary and automatic

Example: Smiling and Gasping

Physiological Human Emotion

Bodily processes that accompany an emotion

Example: Heart rate changes, sweating, and respiration rate changes

Emotions

Play an adaptive role society by influencing behavior and social interaction in ways that improve group unity and conformity. Individuals who are better at perceiving and understanding emotions should also have more social success.

Positive emotions encourage certain behaviors. Negative emotions discourage certain behaviors. This increases socially appropriate behaviors which increases group unity and group conformity.

EEG (Electroencephalogram) Neuroimaging Method

Protocol: Electrodes placed on the scalp and connected to an amplifier.

Measures: Electrical signals of the cortex below the skulls

MEG (Magnetoencephalogram) Neuroimaging Method

Protocol: Helmet like device placed on the head

Measures: Magnetic fields produced by electrical brain activity

PET (Positron Emission Tomography) Neuroimaging Method

Protocol: Scanner detects radioactive tracer attached to a glucose analog

Measures: Glucose metabolism in the brain analog

fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging) Neuroimaging Method

Protocol: Scanner detects differential properties of oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin

Measures: Blood oxygenation in the blood

Attitude

Refers to a person’s evaluation or disposition toward something (object, person, or place). Attitudes can be positive, negative, or neutral and can change over time.

Affective

The attitude component relates to how a person feels about something, including positive or negative evaluations of emotions (anger or excitement). (A person might have a strong negative feeling about a political candidate so they support their opposing candidate)

Cognitive

The cognitive component relates to a person’s beliefs and opinions about something. (A person might believe that a certain candidate has traits that makes the candidate suited to hold office)

Behavioral

The behavioral component relates to how a person acts toward something. (Voting for or against candidate reflects the behavioral component of attitude)

Expectancy

The belief that one will be able to achieve the desired outcome.

Instrumentality

The belief that one has control over the desired outcome.

Valence

The value placed on the desired outcome

The Expectance Theory of Motivation

Motivation results from expectancy, instrumentality, and valence.

The Arousal Theory of Motivation

Individuals are motivated to maintain an optimum level of arousal. When under aroused peopled seek to increase stimulation (bored at home will go out dancing). When over aroused people seek to decrease stimulation (If overwhelmed at a party one will go outside for quiet)

The Incentive Theory of Motivation

Individuals are motivated according to external rewards. People engage in behavior that results in the most desirable outcomes.(People are motivated to go to work for money)

The Humanistic Theory of Motivation

Assuming more basic needs have been met (like hunger), individuals are motivated to seek self actualization the ultimate fulfillment of their own potential. (Motivation of getting a medical degree is example trying to fulfill one’s potential)

Maslow Heirachy of Needs

Maslow believed humans are motivated to achieve certain needs which are arranged in a hierarchy of importance.

1. Basic needs included physiological needs and safety needs. Physiological needs are important for survival (sleep, water, food, and air).

2. Psychological Needs include love/belonging needs and esteem needs.

3. Self Actualization Needs involve a desire to seek personal experiences that allow one to reach their full potential.

Drive Reduction Theory

Motivation is the result of a disruption in homeostasis which produces a physiological need (hunger). which leads to a drive (desire to eat). Homeostasis is reestablished the drive is reduced.

A correlation coefficient (r value)

With an absolute value close to 1 indicates a strong linear relationship between variables.

Positive Correlations

Reflect scores that move in the same direction (both increase and both decrease)

Negative Correlations

Reflect scores that move in opposite directions (one increases while the other decreases)

Learned Helplessness

Describes feelings of powerlessness and loss of control, often occurring after a series of failures or trauma. Learned helplessness is tied to low self efficacy (personal belief about one’s ability) and an external locus of control (personal beliefs about whether one can influence the come of the situation)

Role Strain

Competing expectations within a single role create tension. (A student struggles to find enough time to complete homework and attend student government meetings)

Role Conflict

Competing expectations for two or more roles create tension. A student (role 1) who is employed (role 2) struggles to find enough time to complete homework and work late hours.

Role Exit

Individuals disengages from a social role, often replacing it with a new social role.(A college student (old role) becomes employed and full time job (new role)

General Adaption Syndrome

A model describing how the body reacts to stress.

1. Alarm stage. Occurs during the first few minutes of the stress response, in which the sympathetic nervous system pares the body to act. Decreased resistance to stress.

2. The Resistance Stage. last for hours (exercise) days (final exams), or months (preparing for MCAT). Increased resistance to stress and hyper adrenal function.

3. Exhaustion Stage. when prolonged stress produces arousal with depleted energy, e body more vulnerable to health affects (depression and hypertension). Decreased resistance to stress.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT)

Attempts to change negative thoughts/beliefs/conditions and maladaptive behaviors.

Various techniques (desensitization. self-talk) replace destructive thoughts/behaviors with healthy ones

Psychoanalytical Therapy (Talk Therapy)

Attempts to uncover how unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood shape behaviors

Various techniques (free association, dream analysis) to analyze unconscious

Humanistic Therapy (Person-Centered Therapy)

Attempts to empower individual to move towards self actualization. Unconditional positive regard and empathy used to encourage client to reach full potential.

External Validity

Is concerned with generalizability or the extent to which results can be applied to other situations (outside the laboratory) or people (to the population)

Internal Validity

Concerned with causality, the extent to which changes in the dependent variable can be attributed to changes in the independent variable.

Appraisal Theory

States that one’s evaluation of a stimulus determines one’s emotional response.

Primary Appraisal

An individual determines if a stimulus is a threat, positive, or irrelevant. If it is deemed a threat, the individual evaluates whether their resources are sufficient to cope with the stressor in the secondary appraisal,